The Great Pyramid of Xochicalco. This imposing structure looks directly south over the Plaza of the Two-Glyph Stela on the southern end of the ancient city. Visiting this World Heritage Site was a high priority when Carole and I stayed at Taxco (see Taxco Parts 1-9 on this blog). Xochicalco (pronounced Soshi-cal-co) is one of the finest examples of a city of the Late Classic Era in pre-hispanic Mexico. Its ruins can be found atop a high hill overlooking the modern pueblo of Xochicalco. Excellent cuotas (toll roads) connect the ancient city with Taxco, about an hour's drive to the southwest. In addition, the city of Cuernavaca is less than 1/2 hour by cuota to the north.  To locate Xochicalco on a Google map, click here.

The plaza gained its name from the stela in the center of this altar. A stela is an upright stone on which images ("glyphs") are carved, painted, or sometimes formed using a stucco overlay. Stelae are usually, but not always, associated with altars. The Plaza of the Stela of Two Glyphs lies at the south end of Xochicalco. In my series, we'll examine the city section by section, as you would find it if you were to visit. This week, we'll look at the various structures to be found within and around the Plaza of the Stela of Two Glyphs. In addition we'll examine the South Ball Court, just to the southwest of the plaza.


Approaching the Plaza

View of Xochicalco's ruins from the museum. Both the museum and the ruins spread out along high ridges that are separated by a deep and heavily wooded ravine. Invisible through the trees, ancient terraces line the slopes. During Xochicalco's prime, these terraces were covered with the small fields and dwellings of the commoners. Most of these areas have not been excavated. The portions of the city that have been unearthed were the domain restricted to the elites, i.e. nobility, priests, and warriors. These are the areas on which my series will focus.

Site map of the elite areas of the city. The city is laid out on a north-to-south and east-to-west axis. At the bottom (south) end is the Plaza of the Stela of Two Glyphs. This was the main entrance to the city in ancient times, as it is today. To the left (west) of the plaza is the South Ball Court, shaped like the capital letter "I" lying on its side. On the north side of the two-glyph plaza is the Great Pyramid. To the north of that pyramid is the complex known as the Plaza Principal, or Ceremonial Plaza, with the Pyramid of the Plumed Serpent in its center. To the right (east) side of the Plaza Principal is the East Ball Court complex. To the left (west) side of the plaza is the Acropolis, the highest point in the city where the ruler and his family lived. At the very north end are the North Ball Court and the water storage areas, including a temescal (sweat bath). The northwest corner contains a entrance to underground chambers that include an astronomical observatory.


Scale model of the Plaza of the Stela of Two Glyphs. You approach along the pathway seen at the bottom of the photo, running from right to left. The plaza is entered by ascending the staircase seen in the center of the left of the photo. At the top of the stairs, you find yourself on a broad platform filled with a variety of structures. This may have been the first part of the city completed, and its original center. The structures you encounter are a pair of rectangular buildings, one on the east and another to the west. Each has a long dividing wall down its length, with rooms on either side. Through the broad space separating these two structures, you can see temples on the east and west sides. Exactly between the temples is an altar with a stela. Beyond the altar is a broad staircase leading to a higher platform on which the Great Pyramid stands. In the space between the east temple and the southeast corner of the pyramid is another small temple.


View looking directly south from the top of the staircase leading to the plaza. The people occupying the elite areas of the city had a spectacular 360 view of the valley surrounding them. While this may have been aesthetically pleasing, it is also indicative of the strong defenses necessary to survive in the Epi-Classic Era. The collapse of the Teotihuacán Empire left Central Mexico in turmoil. Conflict between city-states over trade routes and resources was endemic. In addition, hostile populations of nomadic migrants periodically roamed the country. The lake in the background was one of the sources of the city's water supply, the other being rain-water runoff into the city's well-engineered system of drains, channels, and catchment basins. Since the food grown on the terraces immediately below the elite areas was insufficient to support Xochicalco's population of 10 - 15 thousand, the main agricultural areas were primarily around the lake and in the valley to the north.


The rectangular building on the west side of the platform. Carole stands at the edge of the platform, looking down on the South Ball Court. There is a nearly identical building on the east side. The purpose of these rectangular structures is not certain. However, all the rest of the structures surrounding the plaza are clearly for ritual/ceremonial purposes. This indicates that the rectangular buildings may have been repositories for ceremonial goods and supplies, such as clothing, feathers, copal incense etc. In addition, priests may have used these buildings to dress themselves and paint their bodies in preparation for ceremonies. This would be the rough equivalent of the sacristy in a Catholic church where the priests don their vestments and keep other items important to church rituals. In addition, since the staircase leading to this point is, in effect, the entrance to the elite section of the city, warriors may have been stationed as guards in one or both of these structures.


Plaza of the Stela of Two Glyphs

The Great Pyramid, with the altar and stela in the center. The first stage in building the city was to carve out the series of broad, flat, artificial platforms on which all the temples, pyramids, and other structures stand. The bedrock removed to accomplish this provided some of the building materials for the structures. The grassy area above is the platform for the Plaza of the Stela of Two Glyphs. It took enormous effort to build these platforms, but they had to be hacked out and leveled before construction could begin on anything else. Given the limited population in the area when refugees from Teotihuacán arrived, it is unclear who actually did all this work, but it almost certainly wasn't the elite group. The laborers may have been Teotihuacán commoners who volunteered--or were drafted--to accompany the elites in their quest for a new home. In addition, warriors would certainly have been among the leaders of the refugees. It is possible they picked up war captives during the long journey from Teotihuacán. Further, once they had arrived and picked a location, the warriors may have set out on wide-ranging slave expeditions.


Construction model used in designing the city. Unlike most other pre-hispanic cities, this one was not built over a long period of time, with larger and grander structures gradually replacing smaller and simpler ones. Archaeologists have uncovered only a handful of widely scattered remains from times earlier than 650 AD. Apparently, one of the reasons the site was chosen by its ancient architects was precisely because it was unoccupied. Having selected their site, Xochicalco's builders planned it in advance and built it from a specific design, using carved stone models as guides. The whole process occurred over a relatively short period of time. It was not just the elite areas that were carefully designed, but also the lower terraces on which the common people constructed their homes and planted their gardens. Created in an era with no metal tools, no draft animals, and no wheeled vehicles, Xochicalco was a magnificent architectural achievement.


View looking east showing the stela and altar and the east temple beyond. The stela seen above is a replacement for the original, which is now in the site museum. In general, the purposes of stelae included commemorating significant events, such as a battle, the birth or death of a ruler or high-ranking individual, or the founding of a pyramid, temple, or even a whole city. The east temple was a two-story affair, with a staircase leading up onto a base platform. On top of the platform is a room containing four pillars. These once supported a roof which may have been made of perishable materials such as wood and thatch.


The two glyphs from the stela may be related to the founding of Xochicalco. In the counting system widely used in Mesoamerica, a dot represents 1, while a horizontal bar represents the number 5. At the base of the upper glyph, you can see two horizonal bars, meaning "10". The symbol above the number means "Cane or Reed". The lower glyph has one bar, plus four dots, meaning "9". The associated symbol means "Reptile Eye".  The upper glyph is thought to be a date, while the lower one may refer to Quetzalcoatl, the Plumed Serpent god. He was brought to Xochicalco by the refugees from Teotihuacán who founded the city. The two symbols together may refer to the founding of the plaza or even of the city itself. It would certainly make sense to place a stela proclaiming the date of the city's founding and its adherence to Quetzacoatl at the entrance to the city.


This small temple stands just north of the plaza's east temple. This little temple is unique in the Plaza of the Stela of Two Glyphs. Every other structure is perfectly balanced with the others around it. The temple above, located between the east temple and the southeast corner of the Great Pyramid, has no corresponding structure on the west side of the plaza. Although it follows a similar design to that of the east and west temples, it is only about 1/4 of their sizes and only about 1/2 as tall. It may have been dedicated to some lesser god.


The west temple is similar in basic design to its mate on the east. However, the interior of the top level is more elaborate. Both temples show elements of Teotihuacán style. The strict orientation of the plaza to the four cardinal directions may indicate a celestial purpose. The west temple faces the rising sun and its promise of a new day. The one to the east faces the sun as it drops into the underworld.


The talud y tablera style is typical of Teotihuacán.Talud refers to the sloping surface. Tablera is the vertical, rectangular surface above it. This style can be found wherever Teotihuacán's influence extended, even in far-off Maya areas. These features can be seen on both levels of the temple.


View from the inner sanctum of the west temple toward the east temple. The west temple has two rooms in its top structure. The outer room is entered through the portals created by the two columns and is open to the outside. The inner room is the same width as the outer one, but narrower. The room can only be entered through the doorway above. The threshold of stones between the walls of the doorway shows that the inner room is slightly elevated above the outer one. In order to keep the temple's rituals secret, the doorway may have been covered by a curtain or even a door. A priest standing in the portal would be directly facing the sun as it rose over mountains behind the east temple.

The Great Pyramid

The Great Pyramid looms over the plaza, facing directly south. Anyone entering the Plaza of the Stela of Two Glyphs is immediately confronted by the massive structure occupying the entire north end of the plaza. Visitors would have been awed. This was, no doubt, one its main purposes. The pyramid sits on its own platform, raised above the Plaza of the Stela of Two Glyphs by a series of six stepped terraces. The platform can be accessed by a broad staircase, now partially covered by grass. Along with the east and west temples, the pyramid plays a role in the plaza's celestial functions. Positioned half way between the two temples, it marks mid-day. Since it is a short distance to the north of both temples, it further marks the direction the sun travels to the north as the summer progresses.


View of the west side of the Great pyramid's terraces. Aside from its religious purposes, and the desire to achieve an emotional impact, the pyramid may have been an initial bulwark in the city's defenses. An enemy assaulting the city from the south--the only practicable direction--would have to clamber over these many levels while dodging a hail of arrows, spears, and rocks from the warriors on top.


View of the northwest corner of the Great Pyramid. The back part of the pyramid has been partially rebuilt, showing steep, smooth sides. Above the rebuilt section you can see the inner construction of rubble and rough stone. When the smooth sides extended all the way to the top, it would have been impossible for an enemy to climb them, leaving the front as the only point of attack. Warriors on top would have had a clear field of fire in all directions This is not just a temple, it's a bastion.


The South Ball Court and Palace

Scale model of South Ball Court and Plaza of the Stela of Two Glyphs. The ball court is at the bottom center of the photo, on a level below the plaza. To reach it, city residents would walk down the stone ramp seen at the right center. Out of sight below the bottom of the photo is a ruin that archaeologists call the Palace.


View from the top of the stone ramp down toward the South Ball Court. The ball court is out of sight among the trees, but you can pick out the Palace just above the center of the photo. The wall on the right side of the ramp contains regularly spaced altars showing the 20 months of the sacred yearly cycle. The ball game was not just athletic entertainment, but an integral part of the religious rituals of Mesoamerica. It was seen as a re-enactment of the eternal struggle between the forces of light and darkness and was related to rebirth and renewal. Human sacrifice was often a key part of ball game ceremonies, although it is not clear whether this was true at Xochicalco.


The South Ball Court, seen from its east end. This is the largest of the three balls court at Xochicalco. The main playing area is the narrow grassy corridor down the middle, with rectangular spaces at either end, similar to the top and bottom cross pieces of a capital "I". The secondary areas of play were two sloping sides with stone rings set into the boundary walls about 1/2 way down the court on either side. Archaeologists believe that this court may have been used as a model for later ball courts throughout Mesoamerica.


The ring on the south wall. Rules of play seem to have varied from place to place. Some ball courts in Mesoamerica have rings, others don't. Generally, the ball could only be propelled by the shoulders, hips, and knees. The use of hands or feet was forbidden. One way to score was to pass the ball through the ring (assuming a court had one). This would have been difficult because the opening was only slightly wider than the ball. As with soccer, final scores were probably low. Injuries, and occasional deaths, weren't unusual since the rubber ball was solid and quite heavy. To protect themselves, players wore armor, helmets and a heavy stomach protector called a yoke. When human sacrifice occurred it sometimes involved the players. There is disagreement about whether the losers were beheaded as a penalty for defeat, or the winners to "honor" their victory. Go Team!


The Palace lies a short distance south west of the ball court's western end. It is a residential area which includes kitchens, workshops, storerooms, and a temescal. What relationship it might have had with the ball court is unknown. Perhaps this was where a visiting team stayed prior to a game. On the other hand, it might have simply belonged to a wealthy noble. The structure occupies an odd position, however, since it is outside the heavily defended area.

This completes Part 2 of my Xochicalco series. Next time we will take a look at the Plaza Principal and its temples, pyramids, and elite residential areas. I hope you enjoyed this posting. If so, please leave any questions and comments in the Comments section below or email them to me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Altar and sunken courtyard atop the Temple of the Three Stelae. The temple (also known as the Pyramid of the Stelae and the Palace of the Stars) is located in the southeast corner of the great ceremonial space known as the Plaza Principal. You are looking north in this photo. Behind me, when I took the shot, was the back side of the Great Pyramid, seen in Part 2. Three broken and ritually buried stelae were found here, which led to the naming of the site. To the right of the sunken courtyard are stairs leading to a small and very private temple with a mysterious pit in its center. Before examining the Temple of the Three Stelae, we will first have a look at the Plaza of the Porticos and Staircases. To locate Xochicalco on a Google map, click here.


Plaza of the Porticos and Staircases

Plaza of Porticos and Staircases. The view here is toward the northeast. The plaza is the three-sided area with a small altar in its center, seen at the bottom of the model. On the platform above the plaza, in the center-right, is the Great Pyramid. Directly behind the Great Pyramid, on top of an even higher platform, is the Temple of the Three Stelae. The three successive staircases in the center-left of the photo form one of the only two entrances to the Plaza Principal. The Plaza of the Porticos and Staircases was one of the few areas of this hill-top fortress that was open to the common people.


Ground-level view of the plaza. The altar in the center of the photo would have been used during ceremonial events open to the general public. Rising to a point in the upper center is the southwest corner of the Temple of the Three Stelae. In the upper left is the first of the series of staircases that lead up to the elite areas. Xochicalco existed in a time of intense competition and strife between city-states with expansionist ambitions. The city's elite built their citadel on a high hilltop and they restricted access to the topmost areas as a defensive strategy.


Public markets were conducted in the Plaza of Porticos and Staircases. People of all ages and social classes came from far and wide to exchange their goods. These might include food items, clothing and textiles, jewelry, tools, conch shells, ceramics, feathers, monkeys, parrots, and much more. Xochicalco not only sponsored the exchange of goods, the city itself manufactured many items for sale. Key among these were objects made from the volcanic glass known as obsidian.


Obsidian spear heads, knives, and arrow heads. Xochicalco had no local sources for the obsidian from which these blades were chipped. Analysis of the obsidian found in the city's ancient workshops shows that almost all of it came from the Ucaréo area near Zinapécuaro, Michoacan. Although a major source near Teotihuacánwas much closer, very little came from there. This was probably because it had been pre-empted by Xochicalco's trading competitor Cacaxtla. Obsidian tools and weapons could easily be chipped from rough blocks called "cores". The finished products were remarkably sharp and, importantly, of relatively light weight. These qualities made the volcanic glass one of the most important trade items in Mesoamerica. A city-state which could dominate a major source of obsidian was somewhat equivalent to a modern state possessing large oil deposits.


Ceramic products were made by local potters, but also imported. I was intrigued by the figure on the side of this censer (incense burner). He looks a bit like Mickey Mouse wearing a bow-tie. Artisans making ceramics at Xochicalco tended to specialize. Some made products showing great skill and artistry, like this one. It was probably destined for the private altar of an elite household. Other potters focused on items needed by the common people in their day-to-day lives. Of the imported pottery, grey ceramics from the Zapotecs of Monte Albán were especially popular.


Small censers intended for ordinary households. These censers are smaller, simpler--and undoubtedly cheaper--than the version seen in the previous photo. Their creator could not resist adding some decorative touches. These bear a striking resemblance to coffee beans. However, coffee was not introduced into the Americas until 1720, 800 years after Xochicalco was abandoned. The city's craftsmen needed a regular supply of materials to produce goods for inter-city trade as well as the local market. Unfortunately, Xochicalco's natural resources were limited. This required the city's leaders to look elsewhere for many of the necessary materials. Sometimes, access could be gained through marriage alliances with other city-states. When this was not possible, conquest was often the next resort. This was how the city ended up dominating most of western Morelos and northern Guerrero. For example, the Taxco area was seized because it was the source of valuable green stones used to make jewelry. If neither marriage nor conquest were feasible, raw materials could sometimes be acquired from long-distance traders who brought in cotton from the Gulf Coast, obsidian cores from Ucaréo, and oxides of copper and iron from the Puebla area to make pigments for paint. As a last resort, desirable items could be purchased as finished products from visiting traders. However, this tended to be costly and Xochicalco's leaders preferred to manufacture trade items themselves because that was the route to wealth and power.


Plaza of Porticos and Staircases from the top of the first staircase. In the upper right, you can see the top of the west temple on the Plaza of the Stela of Two Glyphs. The Great Pyramid is in the upper left, behind a screen of trees. The "porticos" part of the plaza's name can be seen lining the fronts of the two long, narrow rooms just above center. The pillars that used to form the porticos are now just low stumps of stone. The purpose of these and other rooms around the plaza is not clear, although they may have been for storage or ceremonial purposes. Their size and shape indicate they were probably not living spaces but had some connections with the markets held there.


The main staircase leading to the Plaza Principal. This is the topmost of the three staircases that begin on the north side of the Plaza of the Porticos and Staircases. This would have been the main entrance to the ceremonial plaza and would have been a key point of defense. The area in front of this broad staircase is yet another of the many platforms cut from the hilltop and leveled to enable construction. This platform is elevated above the Plaza of the Porticos and Staircases. In Part 2, we looked at the Plaza of the Stela of Two Glyphs, which is laid out on a strict north-to-south alignment. By contrast, the Plaza Principal is aligned 15 degrees clock-wise from true north. This was no accident or vagary of the terrain. Both Teotihuacán and Monte Albán share similar orientations. These alignments match the positioning of celestial bodies on particular days of the year.


View of the Plaza Principal's main staircase, looking west. Here, again, you can see the stepped terraces that form the borders of the platform. Imagine the difficulty an attacking enemy force would have encountered. Attempting to climb the staircase and terraces, they would have to face showers of arrows, spears, and rocks from slings wielded by warriors lining the tops of the stairs and walls. In addition to opposition in front, they would have been exposed to attack on their flank by those standing where I am. In the distance, under the trees, is the Acropolis. It is the highest point in Xochicalco, where the ruler, his family, and his retainers lived. Behind me, when I took this shot, is the Temple of the Three Stelae.


Temple of the Three Stelae

Model showing the Plaza Principal and the Temple of the Three Stelae. The view here is looking southwest. The temple is the structure in the center-left. It is attached to the left end of the long rectangular structure bordered by high walls on its north, east, and south sides. In the photo's center is a square, hollow structure. This is the famous Pyramid of the Plumed Serpent. In a future posting, I will focus on this pyramid and its remarkable relief carvings. The Acropolis is shown in the upper right.


Temple of the Three Stelae from the top of Plaza Principal's main staircase. Here, you are looking southeast. The complex includes not only a temple but the palace of a person of very high status. It may have been the residence of the high priest. The temple sits on the southern edge of the platform that makes up the Plaza Principal. The only part of Xochicalco that is higher than this one is the ruler's complex, called the Acropolis.


Temple of the Three Stelae and its Palace, looking south. This structure had multiple functions. It was both a site for religious rituals and a place of residence for the high priest. Additional purposes included the administration of justice and the collection of tribute from subject towns and villages. From the top of the temple, you have a 360 degree view of the horizon. This suggests an additional role was celestial observation. The layout of the temple and its palace bears a remarkable resemblance to similar structures at the Zapotec capital of Monte Albán. Between 400 AD and its fall in 650 AD, Teotihuacán maintained a close connection with the Zapotec Kingdom. The refugees from Teotihuacán who built Xochicalco may have brought Zapotec architectural styles with them. Alternatively, Zapotec architects may have helped design the complex. Another unusual aspect of this structure has to do with the three stelae unearthed there in 1961.


 The three stelae are covered with glyphs on all four sides. The stelae seen above are faithful reproductions of originals that are now on display at the National Anthropological Museum in Mexico City. Archaeologists determined that the original stelae had been painted red, broken in pieces, and then buried more than 1000 years ago. This ritual is thought to signify killing them, but the reason for doing it is still a mystery. The reassembled stelae tell the story of Quetzalcoatl, the Plumed Serpent god. The glyphs include his emergence from the jaws of a snake monster; his creation of the World of the 5th Sun (the age of humans) through sacrificing himself; his rebirth as the "morning star" Venus; and his gift of maiz (corn) to humans. Also included among the glyphs is the goggle-eyed face of Tlaloc, the rain god. Quetzalcoatl has many facets, one of them being Ehecatl, the god of wind. The wind god is linked with Tlaloc because the wind pushes the rain so that it will arrive to nourish the maiz. Various elements of the glyphs display features characteristic of Teotihuacán, Maya, and Zapotec styles, once again demonstrating the multi-cultural nature of Xochicalco.


Censer decorated with the figure of a priest. This male figure provides an idea of how the person who occupied the temple/palace may have appeared. He is scantily dressed in a loincloth called a maxtlatl and sandals. On his head he wears a simple headdress and large ear rings. Around his neck is a broad collar painted in a blue-green color, suggesting precious stones. The figure's body shows faint traces of black paint and he carries a bag in his left hand. Both of these aspects identify him as a priest. In his right hand he carries a rain-stick, which indicates a connection with Tlaloc.


Pillars stand in what was once a covered terrace on the platform's edge. This section is part of the palace living area. In the shelter of the covered terrace, the high priest/judge/administrator could stand and gaze at the broad vista to the south. A look at the physical layout of the Plaza Principal shows that it is perfectly square, except for this section. The part of the platform on which the Temple of the Three Stelae stands projects out toward the south and appears to have been added at a later time. This projection creates a particularly private zone in an area of the city that is already highly restricted. The occupant of the Temple of the Three Stelae was obviously a person of high status.


The staircase leading up to the temple is wide and stately. At the top stand a row of pillars. These once supported a portico/entrance which opens into a sunken courtyard. The courtyard is bordered by living areas and an altar.

The living spaces of the complex are unusually large. This room is much larger than some of the other elite living areas around the Plaza Principal. Since this room was used as a living area rather than for religious rituals, the two fire pits seen above were probably for cooking and heating. The size of the rooms and their grand views give an impression of sumptuous living. Imagine the colorful woven materials and beautiful ceramics with which it must have been filled. Through the doorway, you can see the stumps of the pillars that formed the portico on top of the temple's entrance staircase.

A female dancer ritually brandishes handfuls of sticks. The sticks represent flowering branches. The dancer wears a head dress called a quexquemetl, probably made from her own hair. In real life, her large ear rings might have been made from jade, a popular choice for jewelry of that sort. Draped over her shoulders is a shawl and around her hips is an ankle-length skirt. Such dancers were a regular feature of religious rites.


An altar stands at one end of the sunken courtyard. Just behind the altar is another living area. The sunken courtyard would have served both for elite ceremonies and as a patio for the living areas. Along the right side of the photo is the row of pillars that makes up the entrance portico. The view here is directly to the south. In addition to conducting the more private rituals of the elite areas, the high priest performed ceremonies open to the public in the Plaza of the Stela of Two Glyphs and the Plaza of the Porticos and Staircases. He would carefully costume himself with feathers and masks to imitate the patron god. Part of the ritual involved praying for the welfare of the people and seeking to exalt their minds. All this helped ensure balance in the cosmic order and, of course, maintain the social order with himself and the other elites on top.


Along the east side of the sunken courtyard is the inner sanctum. The front of this temple is made up of a staircase and a row of pillars. This "inner sanctum" is a kind of temple-within-a-temple. The very private nature of the structure once again indicates the status of the individual who occupied this complex. Only the most privileged people would have access to this area.


The main feature of the temple's inner sanctum is a large square pit. The view is from the rear of the temple toward the west. The row of pillars stands on top of the staircase leading up from the sunken courtyard. In the center of the room is a square pit. Just in front of it are two small fire circles. My first thought was that the large pit may be for ceremonial fires. There was no explanatory sign and I have found no mention of this curious opening in any of the literature about the site. Looking at it, I am reminded of the openings in the center of ancient Anasazi ceremonial kivas found in the US Southwest. During ceremonies, the shaman would emerge through the openings, as if from the underworld. At present, the pit's purpose and the part it played in ancient rituals remain a mystery to me.

This completes Part 3 of my Xochicalco series. I hope you found it as fascinating as I did. If so, please feel free to leave comments or questions in the Comments section below, or email me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Stone bust of a member of Xochicalco's elite. When I snapped a quick shot of this sculpture, I thought it looked a bit odd, with its jowly face and unusual slanted eyes. Later, when I enlarged the photo in my computer, I discovered that the jowls are actually hands pressed to either cheek. The pressure of the hands forces the skin up and the eyes to slant, just at they would on a live person. The expression is one of either delighted astonishment or dismay. The bust provides a sense of how a member of Xochicalco's elite would have appeared, including a rather interesting hairstyle. In this posting, we'll look at how person like this lived, including some of the day-to-day objects he might have used.

.
View of the residential area along the east side of the Plaza Principal.The Temple of the Three Stelae (seen in Part 3) is in the upper left corner. The living quarters begin just to the right of the temple. They extend along the length of the east wall of the Plaza Principal's platform to where it turns to form the north wall. Warriors, priests, and city officials lived in these apartments. Some of the space was also used as work shops and storerooms for trade goods and small, mass-produced religious statues.


Typical elite home. The functions of the various rooms are indicated by their color on the chart. The light blue space in the upper right is a granero (granery), which would have been filled with containers of harvested maiz (corn). The purple room in the upper left is the almacén (storeroom), which contained various household supplies, tools, as well as trade goods. The deep red rooms on the upper and lower right are cocinas (kitchens). Since there are two, the residence may have been built for more than one family and, if so, they were probably related. The light green spaces are habitaciones  (bedrooms). The brown spaces on either side are bodegas (pantries), for food. This, again, suggests more than one family. The small blue room at the bottom of the patio contained the household altar. Along with statues of gods, one or more censers (incense burners) would have been kept here, along with a supply of copal incense. At the chart's bottom is the pórtico, a terrace entrance with a ceiling supported by a line of pillars. In the center of the residence is the patio interior, an open-air atrium that was the focus of the entire complex. It was here, and under the pórtico, that the members of the household would gather, socialize, grind maiz, repair weapons and tools, make or mend clothing, and manufacture trade goods.

Over view of east-side residential area

View of the residential area, looking north. I took this shot from the top the Temple of the Three Stelae. To the right of the line of dwellings is the edge of the Plaza Principal's platform, which drops off sharply to the East Ball Court complex. The small temple in the upper-right background is part of that complex. Along the front of the dwellings are the pórticos, which still contain the bases of their pillars. The dwellings had flat roofs made of wood covered by lime stucco. The types of wood used for construction included fir, piñon pine, white cedar, oak, madrona, and Mexican hawthorne. All these were plentiful in the heavily wooded mountains surrounding Xochicalco. In addition to their use for construction, logs from some trees were turned into charcoal and the resins of others were employed as medicines or burned as incense for rituals.



Stone block containing a glyph indicating the dwelling occupant's rank. Xochicalco's architects were meticulous in their planning and this included glyphs for each dwelling indicating the social rank of the occupant. There was no translation available for the glyph shown above. However, the hand clutching the arrow at the top may indicate a warrior. The symbol below it shows an entrance portico, possibly of the warrior's residence. The sides of the structure show the slanting talud y tablero style from Teotihuacán, previously discussed in Part 2. The three dots at the bottom stand for the number 3 in the numeric system widely used in the Late Classic period of Mesoamerica. 



Stucco home decoration. Shaped like a caracol (snail), a series of these stucco decorations lined the edge of a roof. Snails and conches are often associated with Quetzalcoatl, the Plumed Serpent. Snail shells represented birth, death, and resurrection, which were key elements of Quetzalcoatl's mythology.



Building block containing the outline of a clawed foot. This fragment of a wall mural was once part of a painting in an elite residence. Xochicalco's artists were talented and knew how to get the best out of their materials. To make a mural on a rough stone block like this, the artist would first cover the area with a plaster of lime and sand to create a flat, smooth surface. While he was waiting for the plaster to dry, he would pulverize various pigments in a stone mortar and mix them together to obtain the desired colors. Once the surface was dry, the artist would draw an outline and then apply the colors. The images had to conform to rules set down by the priests. 



Relief carving of a maiz cob. Archaeo-botanists have found evidence that maiz was domesticated as early as 8,700 years ago in the Central Balsas Valley of southwest Mexico, spreading from there throughout the Americas. Maiz was the single most important food in a diet that also included squash, beans, domesticated turkeys and wild game. Maiz could be grown in a wide variety of different soils, climates, and altitudes. In addition, its kernels could be stored for long periods before being consumed or replanted. Anything this important to a culture will naturally become the subject of myths. Mesoamericans came to believe that their ancestors had received the gift of maiz from Quetzalcoatl.



Daily Living in the elite areas



A long covered pórtico, containing multiple pillars. The pórtico not only gave the residence a stylish appearance, but it provided an area protected from sun and rain where life's daily activities could be comfortably conducted. Similar pórticos adorn many buildings in modern Mexico and are still used for the same sort of purposes. The main entry into the interior of the residence can be seen in the center of the photo.



The implements of daily life. Seen above are several kinds of woven baskets, pots, bowls and grinding stones. Some of the bowls are ceramic while others appear to be cut from hollow gourds. These items are arranged on petates, woven fibre mats used for sitting or sleeping. In the Mexican village where I live, street vendors still sell petates like these. The weaving material for the petates above was probably fibre stripped from the leaves of the maguey plant, a succulent that grows all over Mexico.



Mano and metate. The use of stone implements for grinding food has a history of extraordinary length. Paleolithic (pre-agricultural) people used stone devices to grind up nuts, seeds, grasses, and tubers. To grind maiz or other material, the small, cylindrical mano will be rhythmically scraped against the metate, the large shallow stone pan. The person doing this (virtually always a woman) will grind the maiz into a flour. A dough called masa results when the flour is mixed with water. The masa will be shaped by hand into thin circular cakes which are then cooked over a fire on a clay griddle known as a comal. The result will be tortillas, a staple food familiar to millions of people. The process I have described dates back to very early pre-hispanic times, but is still used today. In fact, manos and metates, indistinguishable from those seen above, can be purchased in Mexican ferreterías (hardware stores). 



A shallow clay bowl that may--or may not--be a comal. Notice the decorative edge around the bowl. Pre-hispanic artisans even decorated simple kitchen implements like this one. The bowl's purpose is not clear. However, the person who designed this exhibit decided to place some partially burned sticks in it. It is possible that this was some sort of portable fire-pit. 




The large bowl and small pot are simple, utilitarian, but still stylish. The blackened surface of the pot indicates that it was used for cooking over an open fire. The still-bright paint on the bowl was applied by a potter over 1000 years ago.



Long-handled ladle. Any modern person, viewing this ladle, could easily visualize someone using it to dip out a serving of food from the dotted bowl from the previous photo . One of the charms of visiting these ancient sites is how it enables me to reach across the millennia and almost touch the humans on the other side.



A simple but elegant pot. I was intrigued by the clever addition of a spout to this pot. Pouring over the lip of the pot might be clumsy and messy. However, using the handles, the contents could easily be poured through the spout. 


Artisans and their tools


Residence at the north end of the complex. Notice the patio in the center with the remains of a staircase. Where these stairs once led is unknown, but it is possible that the occupants may have used their flat roof for additional living space.



Bone tools were among those used by artisans to craft their wares. The artisans of Xochicalco had no access to metal tools and had to rely on those of natural origin, such as bone, wood, stone and volcanic glass. Even with this limitation, their creations display great skill and artistry. The stone bust seen in the first photo of this posting is an example. New World metallurgy originated in South America, possibly in Peru, and subsequently spread to North America through seaborne trade routes. It did not reach central Mexico until around 900 AD, about the time when Xochicalco was abandoned. 



Tool used to pound amate bark into paper. This stone tool is about the size of a large bar of hand soap. Amate trees are a species of ficus, and there is an abundance of them in the mountains around Xochicalco. The paper was produced through a multi-stage process. This included soaking the inner bark for hours and then pounding it so that the fibers were pressed into a thin, cross-hatched mass. Archaeologists have found the remains of clothing made from bark paper that dates back to at least 2000 BC. The Olmec left stone relief carvings showing nobles wearing paper head gear. As writing developed, amate paper began to be used to create painted glyphs on paper that was folded in panels, accordion-style. Because most of these glyphs were related to religious subjects, amate paper itself became sacred and use was generally restricted to the elite. Its elite status and light weight made the paper an attractive trade good. The use of amate paper has continued through the millennia to the 21st century. In fact, there is a young man who makes beautiful amate paper artwork in a stall he sets up in the plaza near where I live. One of the tools he uses is almost identical to the one shown above.



Stone mortar, typical of those used to grind pigments to make paint. These were also used by potters to pulverize clay and by priests to grind up exotic plants as part of religious rituals. Although metullurgy was unknown in Xochicalco, artisans did grind up oxides of copper and iron to make paint.



Arrowheads made from various types of stone. Few, if any, of these are made from obsidian. Xochicalco had no local source of obsidian and therefore it had to be imported and was expensive. Other types of stone used to make arrowheads included flint and chert.  Some archaeologists have tried their hands at making arrow points in the traditional way. Once the technique is mastered, this can be done with surprising speed. 


Small flat statues like these were used in religious rituals as offerings. A large number of these were found in the residential area, indicating that they may have been mass-produced there, or at least stored. The litte statues were probably used both for local ceremonies and as a trade item.

This completes Part 4 of my Xochicalco series. In my next posting, I will focus on the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl, the Plumed Serpent, and the remarkable relief carvings that cover its sides. If you enjoyed this posting, please leave any questions or comments in the Comments section below or email me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so that I can respond. 

Hasta luego, Jim

Pyramid of the Plumed Serpent, named for the Creator God, Quetzalcoatl.  The god gets the first part of his name from the Quetzal, a bird highly valued by the ancients for its colorful plumage and long tail feathers. Coatl means "snake" an animal of great symbolic power. Joined together, they become the Plumed Serpent, the creator-god who gave life to humans and provided them with maiz (corn). This pyramid is unusual for a variety of reasons. First and foremost, are the wonderful high-relief carvings that richly cover its walls. There are several different theories about their enigmatic meanings, which I will discuss later in this posting. Second, the co-mingling of the Teotihuacán, Maya, and Zapotec styles in this structure is greater than anywhere else in the ancient city. Third, Xochicalco's builders intentionally placed the pyramid near the exact center of the Plaza Principal, making it the focal point of the entire complex. Finally, the pyramid is hollow, unlike any of the other pyramids at Xochicalco or anywhere else that I have visited. All of these factors demonstrate the high level of importance placed upon this structure by its ancient architects.

Overview of Pirámide de Quetzalcoatl

View of the Plaza Principal from the northeast. The Plumed Serpent pyramid is the hollow square structure in the center of the photo. There is another structure to its right, also square and covered with grass. However, archaeologists don't think that the second structure held the same level of importance as Pirámide Quetzalcoatl. If you were to draw lines connecting the opposite corners of the Plaza Principal, you would find the Pyramid of the Plumed Serpent at the point where they cross in the middle. It is the focal point of all the other temples, palaces and other structures surrounding the plaza.


Site map of Xochicalco showing the location of Quetzalcoatl's pyramid. The overall alignment of the city is north-to-south. However, the upper part deviates from a true north orientation to one that is 15.5 degrees off north. The reason has to do with celestial observations. Xochicalco was built by refugees from the collapse of the great city of Teotihuacán. That city was built half a millennium before Xochicalco, but with the same, slightly off-kilter orientation. Archeo-astronomers theorize that this orientation is connected with an ancient desire by priest-astronomers to record sunrises and sunsets on particular days of the year. They needed to calibrate their all-important calendars, with which they tracked the cycles of the world including those of planting and harvesting. Along with their celestial orientation, Teotihuacán's refugees brought with them a deep reverence for Quetzalcoatl. This reverence clearly manifests in the most extravagantly decorated structure in Xochicalco.


The pyramid, viewed from the middle of the Plaza Principal. The ruler's palace, known as the Acropolis, was directly behind me when I took this shot. Traces of colored paint have been detected on the relief carvings, including red, green, yellow, blue, black, and white. Twelve hundred years ago, the effect must have been stunning. In the lower left of the photo you can see a small square altar which was probably used during the ceremonial occasions when the Plaza Principal was filled with people. In the center-right, behind some trees, is the Temple of the Three Stelae, the abode of the high priest, which I covered in Part 3 of this series.


How the pyramid once appeared. An artist's rendering shows a covered structure on top of the base. The roof has long-since disappeared, exposing the pyramid's hollow interior. As is often the case with Mesoamerican ceremonial structures, archaeologists found an earlier structure underneath the Plumed Serpent pyramid.



The architecture shows the classic Teotihuacán"talud y tablero" style. The talud sections are the sloping lower walls, while the tablero parts are the vertical panels above them. The tableros are topped by an overhanging cornice, another unusual feature of this pyramid. Such cornices are not found on any of the other tableros of Xochicalco's structures. The talud sections on all four sides are the best-preserved parts of the temple's decorative elements. The tableros once contained extensive relief carvings, but only fragments now remain.


The Lord of the Serpents, found at Pirámide Quetzalcoatl. This large statue was intended to connect Xochicalco's nobility with the Plumed Serpent creator-god. The male figure's posture is regal and severe. He is adorned with a jeweled headband, large ear rings, a necklace, bracelets, and wears a short, kilt-like garment. His left hand holds one serpent while others twine about his body. The power of the rulers, priests, and nobility was based upon their connection to, and ability to communicate with, Quetzalcoatl and the other gods of Xochicalco's pantheon. This power could only be maintained if common people believed in the ability of the elite to intercede with the gods to maintain the balance of the cosmos. That balance was expressed in the regular arrival of the rains, good crop harvests, and the avoidance of weather disasters, earthquakes, epidemics, lost battles, etc. The elite used these beliefs to justify their wealth, authority, and privileges. If the common people's beliefs ever wavered, a popular uprising might be the result. There is evidence that the destruction of the elite areas of Teotihuacán in 650 AD may have been related to a great drought caused by deforestation. The elite of Teotihuacán found itself unable to deal with the drought or with the famine that followed it. This led to a loss of faith and a great revolt. The surviving nobility and priesthood fled south, where they founded Xochicalco. They brought with them a sophisticated culture, an understanding of urban design and trade practices, and a continuing fealty to Quetzalcoatl.


The relief carvings along the pyramid's sides


View of the north side of the pyramid. Each of the taluds on the sides and back have a similar design: two long writhing snakes, with their heads at the corners turned to face each other. The tails meet in the middle of the talud. The two snakes on the front of the pyramid are separated by the staircase. The design of the snakes shows a strong Teotihuacán influence.


View of the northwest corner of the pyramid. In this photo, you can clearly see the snake head turned and the body looping along the side of the talud.


The Plumed Serpent's head, from the northwest corner. The head and neck are fringed with feathers, clearly identifying the serpent as a manifestation of Quetzalcoatl. The mouth gapes open, showing upper and lower fangs curving back. Protruding from the mouth is a long forked tongue. The fork in the tongue has been interpreted as a symbol of the New Fire ceremony, which took place at the end of each 52-year cycle in the sacred calendar. This was a ceremony of great significance because the change-over from one cycle to the next was a moment of cosmic death and rebirth, a time of great danger. On the day of the New Fire ceremony, all fires were extinguished and could only be re-lit when the ritual was complete. Quetzalcoatl was himself a symbol of death and re-birth, which probably is the connection with the New Fire symbol.


Maya-style figures sit between the undulations of the snake's body. There are a series of similar--but not identical--figures on all four sides. The seated postures and the figures' profiles show a strong Maya influence. The attire is similar to that of the Lord of the Serpents, except that the head dress is more elaborate. However, these Maya figures are much more artfully created, indicating that the Lord of the Serpents may not have been crafted by a Maya artisan. To the right of the figure is a symbol which may indicate either speech or a place of origin. The combination of Teotihuacán-style Plumed Serpents with Maya-style figures shows that the great empire's refugees apparently shared power with the Olmeca-Xicalanca, a Maya group from the Yucatan's Gulf Coast. The Olmeca-Xicalanca moved into the territories of the Teotihuacán Empire as it began to collapse. They founded Xochicalco's trade rival, Cacaxtla, at about the same time Xochicalco was built.


These symbols were placed inside other curves of the snakes' bodies. At the bottom, you can see a single bar with four dots below it. The dots each represent the number 1 while the bar represents 5. Together, they form the number 9 in the Zapotec numeric system. The inclusion of Zapotec numbers shows the third major influence on Xochicalco's architecture and culture. The complex symbol above the number means "Eye of the Reptile". Above it, the symbol for New Fire occurs again. All together, this forms a written version of Quetzalcoatl's name. However, it can also be read as a date, 743 AD, when an eclipse occurred.


A lattice decoration was placed at the point where the snakes' tails meet. This decoration appears at the mid-point along the talud, where the snakes' tails meet. Lattice decorations can also be found at Cacaxtla. Both cases form additional examples of Maya influence.


A series of stylized conches for the cornice of the tablero. The connection between conches and Quetzalcoatl can be found in his myth. The Plumed Serpent volunteered to populate the newly created world with human beings, but needed materials. To obtain them, he had to enter the underworld and undergo many trials in order to recover bones from perviously destroyed worlds. Mictlantecuhtli, the God of Death, refused to give up the bones unless Quetzalcoatl traveled around the underworld four times blowing a trumpet made from a conch shell. However, this was a trick because the conch had no holes for blowing. Quetzalcoatl overcame this obstacle by persuading underground worms to drill the holes. He filled the conch with a swarm of bees to amplify the sound. When Mictlantecuhtli heard the Plumed Serpent blasting on the trumpet, he was forced to give up the bones. A final trap set by the Death God caused Quetzalcoatl to fall and break the bones into many pieces of various sizes and shapes. This is the reason that people appear to be different from one another.

The pyramid's top level and interior

Lord of the Serpent Helmet, found near the Pirámide de Quetzacoatl. The sculpture above is another example of an artist making the connection between Xochicalco's nobility and Quetzalcoatl. The figure shows a great serpent with its mouth wide open. On either side are large, fierce-looking eyes and at the top is the snake's nose. Drooping from the lower jaw is a short, bifurcated tongue. Between the jaws is a human head, worn and somewhat indistinct, but still discernible. The sculpture is another reference to Quetzalcoatl, or Kukulkan, his Maya incarnation. The image of a human face emerging from a snake's mouth is common in Yucatan and the other Maya areas. Over time, the image spread throughout Mesoamerica. This may have come about through a campaign by Olmeca-Xicalanca merchant-traders from the Yucatan's Gulf Coast. They actively propagated the feathered serpent cult throughout Mesoamerica as a way to create a common bond with people of different ethnicities, languages, and customs. It was not the first time, nor would it be the last, that profitable business would be greased by religious proselytizing.


Interior of the pyramid. From this view, it appears that there may have been at least two floors, the upper one supported by the pillars. There is no staircase or other obvious route down into the bottom level. In the center-left, behind a pair of pillars, is a low square platform which was probably an altar.


Wall support in Teotihuacán style with a small niche in the side. This buttress supports the back wall of the pyramid on the lower level. Just above the sloping talud, in the center of the buttress, is a small niche. This may have once contained an image or object relating to Quetzalcoatl or possibly a candle or lamp to help light what must have been a dark space.


Conches found inside the pyramid. These don't appear to be trumpets, since--like the one the God of Death gave to the Plumed Serpent--they lack blowing holes. These offerings probably originated on the Pacific Coast and were brought to Xochicalco through the trade networks.


Relief carving from the right side of the pyramid's upper level entrance. Originally there were a number of similar--but not identical--carvings on the back, sides, and front walls of the second level. This is one of the few that is nearly intact. The figure in the center is seated in a cross-legged position. The face is worn away, but other elements of the carving are still clear and sharp. A cluster of arrows is strapped to his back, suggesting a military commander, or possibly a ruler. An elaborate necklace is draped around his neck and shoulders and he wears a bracelet on his right hand. Both of these indicate a high-ranking individual. The outstretched hand grasps a staff of power. To the left of the figure is a date glyph with the Zapotec number 8 at the bottom. On the right, at the top, is a fruit-bearing tree or possibly a stylized maiz plant with the ripe cobs. Below it is a rather abstract image of a crocodile sitting upright with the tail curled. While the seated human figure in each three-panel carving is similar to the others on the second level walls, the images, symbols and numbers on either side of the figures differ from one three-panel group to another.


Fragment from the upper entrance on the left side. The seated figure in the center is gone, except for the feet, a hand holding a scepter on the right, and the fletched ends of the arrows of the left. There is a date symbol on the right. It is similar to the previous carving, except for the Zapotec number 10 at the bottom and a New Fire symbol at the top. On the left, the coyote seated on the mat indicates royalty or rulership.



Glyph containing a jaguar head with the number 7 at the bottom. This is all that remains of a three-part grouping. Absent are the human figure and the date glyph. As we have seen, animals such as snakes, quetzal birds and coyotes were important symbols in the pre-hispanic world. Big cats, particularly jaguars, were among the most powerful of these symbols. Jaguars are the third largest of the big cats, after African lions and Indian tigers. They are also skillful hunters. That they seek their prey in the dead of night was especially significant. It implied that they could move freely between the worlds of darkness and light, and of death and life. Jaguars have long been a preferred symbol for warriors and rulers.


Another powerful symbol was the eagle. The fierce nature and hunting ability of eagles made them another favorite as a warrior symbol. Their ability to soar across the heavens associated them with the sun and the gods. It is no coincidence that the two most important warrior cults were named for eagles and the jaguars. At Cacaxtla, a huge ancient mural depicts an epic battle between warriors of the eagle and jaguar cults. Some archaeologists think that the mural may have been modeled after an actual conflict.

So, what does all of this add up to? Why was Pirámide de Quetzalcoatl built and what did it actually represent? As I said at the beginning, the answer is enigmatic. There are several theories:

• The pyramid may have been built as a political statement and historical record to celebrate Xochicalco's conquests. In this version, the defeated rulers are depicted on the upper level walls, with each three-part grouping listing the dates of victories and tributes levied. At the Zapotec capital of Monte Alban, conquered cities are depicted in relief carvings in somewhat the same way. The figures entwined in the Plumed Serpents' coils may be the Xochicalco lords who defeated the rulers shown on the upper level. Their Maya style might be due to the Olmeca-Xicalanca origins of the artists.
• Another possibility is that these upper-tier figures are rulers of other regional powers, such as Cacaxtla and La Quemada, who may have come together at Xochicalco to participate in the observation of an eclipse in 743 AD. The symbols and animals accompanying each figure might indicate their kingdom and the dates of their accession to their thrones or of their alliances with Xochicalco. The Maya figures entwined by the snakes on the lower level would then be the "Lords of Time", i.e. Maya priest-astronomers who had arrived hoping to use the occasion of the 743 AD eclipse to re-calibrate their calendars. The Maya mastery of astronomy, mathematics, and calendric calculations was far in advance of the rest of Mesoamerican societies. The glyphs that appear in the snakes's coils can be read either as the name of Quetzalcoatl or as the date 743 AD. Under this theory, the Pirámide de Quetzalcoatl would have been a monument to commemorate the occasion when this great gathering of political leaders and astronomer-priests assembled to observe an eclipse.
• Still another possibility involves a legendary human leader who had taken the name of the god Quetzalcoatl. The theory is that he ruled Xochicalco for a time before going to Tollan (modern Tula), to become the ruler of the Toltecs, an emerging power in the late Epi-Classic era. After he was forced to leave Tollan, he is said to have ended up at Chichen Itza in the Yucatan. It is thought that the figures shown on the upper level are the heirs he had left in Xochicalco, with the dates and locations of their conquests placed beside them in the glyphs. The Maya figures on the talud level may represent priests of the Quetzalcoatl cult originally established by the leader who had adopted that name while he ruled Xochicalco.

The mists of time long ago closed over Xochicalco. No one knows for sure which of these theories, if any, is closest to the truth.

This completes Part 5 of my series. Next time, we'll look at the ruler's palace, called the Acropolis, along with many of the items found within it. I hope you enjoyed my posting on the Plumed Serpent pyramid. If so, and you would like to leave a comment or ask a question, please use the Comments below or email me directly. If you leave a question, PLEASE leave your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

View of the ruler's palace called the Acropolis, looking southwest. The large grassy space in the lower left quadrant of the photo is part of the Plaza Principal. Archaeologists believe that the eastern side of the complex, overlooking the Plaza, was the residential area of the Acropolis. The area on the west side, facing the forest, appears to have been used for ceremonial purposes. In this posting, we will examine those ceremonial spaces and some of the artifacts that were discovered there. In the following posting, we'll take a look at the residential areas, including spaces used for food storage and as workshops for luxury goods. As you can see from above, this is quite a sizable complex containing a large number of rooms of various sizes and shapes. I did not photograph all of the rooms, nor would I have space in my blog to show all the photos that I did take. What I include here and the following posting are simply a representative sample. (Photo courtesy of Wikipedia images).


Overview of Xochicalco and its Acropolis


Site map of Xochicalco, with the north side at the top. The Pirámide Quetzalcoatl (Pyramid of the Plumed Serpent, see Part 5) is located in almost the exact center of the Plaza Principal. The Acropolis forms the west side of the Plaza.  Xochicalco was built on a 130 m (426 ft) hilltop and the Acropolis complex is its highest point. In ancient times, access to most of the areas shown above was restricted to elite groups such as priests, warriors and their families. Access to the Acropolis--the home of the ruler--was the most highly restricted of all.


View to the north, from the Acropolis. Out of sight below the wall in the foreground are the Cancha de Pelota del Norte (North Ball Court) and the Temescal (steam bath). The rolling valley in the distance was part of the agricultural area that sustained the city. This photo gives you an idea of how Xochicalco, and particularly its Acropolis, towered over the surrounding countryside. Due to the turbulent times in which it existed, the city was built as a hill-top fortress, much like its various trade rivals, including Cacaxtla and La Quemada.


View to the east, showing the Pirámide Quetzalcoatl in the distance. The grassy area around the Plumed Serpent Pyramid is the center of the Plaza Principal. In the foreground are two of the residential area's rooms.


Ceremonial areas and artifacts

A group of three ceremonial rooms lines the Acropolis' western side. The view here is looking toward the southwest. The rooms pictured here are set on a platform a few feet below the main area of the complex. A terrace, bordered by pillars, runs along the outside of the group. The terrace forms the western edge of the Acropolis. The long, narrow, central room is entered from the terrace through a doorway which once had two pillars. Two smaller rooms, one on either end of the long room, open onto the central room but neither has an opening onto the terrace. Clearly these smaller rooms are subsidiaries to the narrow, central room. They might have been used as priests' dressing rooms or spaces to store ceremonial supplies, equipment, or clothing. Along the back wall of the central room are openings into areas which are too small for anything but storage. The central room is composed of a sunken patio surrounded by paved walkways. An altar stands in the grassy center of the sunken patio.

Block carved with glyphs, found over an altar in the Acropolis. The glyph on the front is the symbol for Ojo de Reptil (Reptile Eye). Under it are four dots representing the Zapotec number 4. The curved, snake-like symbol to its right indicates that the glyph represents a date. On the top of the block are two glyphs, flanked by two hands. The left glyph stands for 2 Movement (referring to the earth's movement), while the one on its right means 1 Death. Bracketing these glyphs are a hand on the far left that holds a punch or awl, while another hand on the right holds a circle. Overall, the symbols appear to refer to two separate events that occurred in the year 4 Reptile Eye. The events must have been of considerable importance to justify all the work of carving this block, as well as its placement over an altar in the ruler's complex.


View toward the northwest of the sunken patio and its altar. The altar has a hole in its middle, which might have been used for ritual fires. In the foreground you can see the small storage areas along the back wall. In the upper left corner, you can see the bases on which some of the pillars stood that lined the terrace on the western side. Visible on the upper right is one of the small dressing/storage rooms.



Circular stone sculptures of five-petal flowers. They look a bit like ancient hub caps. Actually these formed the capitals, or tops, of pillars in the Acropolis and possibly elsewhere in the city. A couple of hundred years after Xochicalco was destroyed and abandoned, tribes of Nahuatl-speaking people moved into the area. The presence of large numbers of these five-petal flowers led them to give the ruined city its name, "Place of the House of Flowers." The meaning of the flowers is obscure, but in Mesoamerica, the center of a flower was thought to provide a passageway for supernatural spirits, including the breath spirit, to enter the world from under the earth. Paintings and carvings of four-petal flowers is much more common, with the four petals representing the four sacred directions. Five-petal flowers are much less common, in my experience.



Large room supported by thick pillars. This rooms is divided in half by a wall. In the middle of the wall are two pillars which form a passageway between the halves. In the half of the room shown in the foreground, the roof is supported by three pillars. On the other side of the dividing wall, there are only two. In the upper left of the photo, you can see a narrow opening into a small room. On the other side of the small room is a space that duplicates the divided room seen above, only in reverse-mirror image.  This physical layout suggests a ceremonial function since a central tenet of Mesoamerican beliefs is the duality of the cosmos. Duality was seen in everything: day vs night, life vs death, man vs woman, etc. In this case, duality is expressed through the architectural design of these mirror-image rooms.

Clay sculpture found in the Acropolis of a macaw emerging from foliage This was one of a number of similar sculptures which decorated the rooflines of ceremonial rooms. At the bottom, the bird's head pushes forward with its beak open. At the top, the long tail feathers fan out. The macaw represented both the sun and the day and was a special symbol of power to the Maya. The use of macaw feathers persisted for over 2000 years. The vivid plumage was prized as a ritual item and as an adornment to the clothing of rulers, priests, and warriors. At first the birds were captured in the wild, but eventually they were raised in pens in order to more easily acquire the feathers. The plumes were traded throughout Mesoamerica and as far north as the American Southwest.



Large ceremonial room with the bases of 10 slender pillars. These supports are much more numerous than those of the previous room as well as being considerably thinner.  Because so many more were used they would still have been able to support the weight of the roof. The result would have been a much greater sense of openness. Notice the staircase in the upper right. This may have been for access to the flat roof. Since the Acropolis was the highest point in the city the day-time view from the roof would have been spectacular. At night, the ability of priests to make celestial observations in all directions would have been unobstructed.


Statue of "The Red Lord", patron of Xochicalco's elite. The arc at the top is part of a broken circle, made up of feathers. The completed circle would have represented the figure's head, as seen in the sign in the background. The middle section represents the root of a tree, but also a torso, with arms, and splayed legs, sitting on a looping glyph at the bottom. The glyph represents the movement of the earth. The striking color of the sculpture is the result of the application of brick-red cinnabar (mercury sulfide), which was often used for ritual purposes by the Maya. The figure represents the God of the Sun, who nourishes the earth. He was the patron god of the ruling elite. The statue was found in a small chamber underneath one of the Acropolis' ceremonial rooms. The extraordinarily private location, in an area that was already the most restricted of the whole city, indicates the great importance that Xochicalco's elite attached to their patron deity.


Two smaller rooms are attached to one end of the large ceremonial room. The view here is to the north. The remains of several of the slender pillars can be seen in the lower left. Just above them is a door. Through the door is an anteroom which separates two small rooms, one on either side. The anteroom serves as the main passageway into and out of the large ceremonial room. Similar to the previously shown group of rooms containing an altar, these small rooms may have been used to store ceremonial materials and as dressing rooms.

Clay emblem of Tlaloc, the rain god. In addition to altars in temples, pyramids, and other ceremonial areas, each household had an altar. Images like the one above have been found around residential altars, along with censers (incense burners) and other ritual items. The living spaces of the ruler's palace in the Acropolis were no exception. The "goggles" around the figure's eyes are a dead giveaway that this is Tlaloc. Notice the halo of bisected conch shells surrounding the face. Tlaloc had long been closely associated with conch shells. Xochicalco was founded by refugees from the great city of Teotihuacan. At Quetzalpapalotl Palace, an elite residence located near Teotihuacan's Pyramid of the Moon, a wall mural shows a goggle-eyed Tlaloc peering down upon a jaguar blowing a feathered trumpet made from a conch shell. In this posting we will take a look at the residential areas of the Acropolis and at some typical artifacts.


Overview of the residential areas


Model of the Acropolis, looking toward the southwest. The grassy area at the lower left of the photo is the the Plaza Principal. The residential area is located on the eastern side of the Acropolis, overlooking the Plaza. The ruler and his family lived in this part of the complex.


Entrance into one of the living areas. The view here is toward the east. The flat roofs of these dwellings were places to enjoy the view over the city and its surrounding countryside during the day. At night, the roofs could be used for celestial observations. The thick stone walls would have maintained a steady, comfortable temperature. The rooms would have stayed warm in the cooler seasons and provided a cool refuge during hot weather.


Lattice painting on this stone block shows Maya influence. Lattice designs can also be found at Cacaxtla, one of Xochicalco's trade rivals. Teotihuacan was not the only cultural influence on Xochicalco. The Olmeca Xicalanca were a Maya group from the Gulf Coast of Yucatan. When Teotihuacan declined after 650 AD, the Olmeca Xicalanca moved up into its former territories and founded Cacaxtla. The lattice painting is one of many indications of Olmeca Xicalanca influence at Xochicalco.


Another residence contains raised stone benches in the back of the room. These platforms were probably used for sleeping. At one end of the bench is a stone cube which may have been an end-table for the bed. On the wall overlooking the room, a young man stands, looking at his cell phone. I am always amused by the juxtaposition of ancient times with the the 21st century to be found in Mexico.


Carved bone flutes. Skilled musicians would have used instruments like these at ceremonial functions. At other times, they would have performed for the amusement of the ruler and his family. The flute on the left has a human face with an elaborate head dress. In Mesoamerica, human bones were sometimes used to make flutes. Carved bone flutes go way back into pre-history. In 2008, archaeologists discovered a 40,000-year-old flute in a cave in Germany, the oldest musical instrument ever found. It was carved from the bone of a vulture.


A three-bedroom apartment. On the right are three of what may have been bedrooms. They share a common entrance into a large open room (left of center). This was probably the general family area. Of course, one of the smaller rooms could have been a kitchen/pantry. As with modern dwellings, it is possible that rooms could have served different functions over time.


Shell and bone jewelry. Jewelry like this would have been crafted by artisans of the common class, but worn by the elite. The bone materials used might have been obtained locally, but the shells would have been brought along the trade routes from the Pacific Coast. The kingdom of Xihuacán, a contemporary of Xochicalco, may have been the source.


More apartments, overlooking the Plaza Principal. The rulers of Xochicalco undoubtedly had large extended families. In fact, polygamy was common among the rulers of the regional states in the Epi-Classic Era. This was not just a social phenomenon, but a political necessity. Marriage was one way to form alliances with other city-states and the more wives, the more alliance possibilities. Sometimes these marriages opened access to important resources. At other times they would have been crucial in offsetting threats from competing alliances. However, the practice seems to have been confined to the rulers and perhaps the elite class. Monogamy seems to have been the practice of ordinary people. In any case, the existence of all these different apartment units within the Acropolis points to polygamy in the ruling circle.


Obsidian jewelry. Tools and weapons were not the only products crafted by artisans working with obsidian at Xochicalco. This necklace, pendant, and other items of jewelry are all chipped from the volcanic glass. The city imported all of its obsidian, primarily from Ucaréo in modern Michoacan State. However, Xochicalco employed many artisans skilled in working with this material. It is likely that one of them made these items. I can imagine them proudly worn by a member of the ruler's extended family.


Rooms with an unknown purpose, but possibly used for food preparation. The commoners were generally excluded from the Acropolis area. However, someone ground the maiz, cooked the domesticated turkeys, prepared the cacao drinks, and performed all the innumerable mundane tasks associated with a royal household. It is hard to imagine the wife (or wives) of the ruler bent over a stone metate, laboriously grinding up maiz for the family meals. After all, what's the point of being rich and powerful if you have to do all this for yourself? It is likely that a select staff of commoners performed these duties. Whether they occupied living areas within the Acropolis is unknown. However, given the extraordinary restrictiveness of this complex, as reflected in its architecture, the commoners probably lived outside the Acropolis and went home for the night.


Pot typical of that which was used in the ruler's kitchens. The knobs on the side of the pot mystified me at first. However, they may have functioned to hold cords in place. These pots would have been suspended from the ceiling to ward off rodents and insects. This further suggests that the contents might have been food.


Ancient pitcher with graceful lines. The purpose and use of some ancient artifacts can be puzzling. However the functions of others are immediately recognizable. I can easily imagine a servant using this pitcher to pour a tasty drink into the ruler's goblet.


Multi-room complex in the northeastern corner of the Acropolis. Most of the rooms are fairly large, indicating that someone unusually important may have lived here, perhaps the ruler himself. Just right of center is an area with what appears to be a sunken patio with two raised blocks at one end. It is likely that one of the rooms above contained the household altar.


Household censer adorned with a snarling cat. Felines were especially revered in Mesoamerica and imbued with god-like qualities.The creature wears an interesting braided collar and is posed in a crouched position. The collar loops over the shoulders, while the back legs and feet can be seen on either side. Such censers were used to burn copal incense, a fragrant resin. Incense burners like this were typically kept near the household altar.

Food Storage and workshops

Graneries occupy the northwest corner of the Acropolis. These small, rectangular spaces have no obvious entrances, except possibly the one on the far right. Even that entrance is too narrow for anyone but a child. The only use I could deduce when I first viewed the rooms was food storage. Sure enough, when I examined a site map of Xochicalco, these were identified as graneros, meaning granaries. They must have been accessed through a hatch on the top of each granero. That would have inhibited pilferage either by humans or, more likely, by rodents or other pests. The grain, undoubtedly maiz, would not have been stored loose, but in large pots which could be further sealed.

The author views a large pot, similar to those used in the Acropolis' granary. With a tight cover, such a pot would have been quite secure against pests. It has the capacity for a large volume of grain. Maiz, stored in cool dry conditions, will remain both edible and plantable for long periods. Notice the small pot with the knobs on the side, similar to the one shown earlier in this posting.


Built onto the Acropolis' exterior wall on the south side are two long narrow rooms. You are viewing the long room on the southeast. This room is separated from the one on the southwest by the wall seen in left of center in the photo.  At the back of the long rooms, abutting the Acropolis' south wall, are a number of rooms which seem too small for living. There was no sign to explain the purpose of the long rooms and their small subdivisions. However, I have found mention of workshops within the Acropolis complex, and this may provide the answer. The rulers apparently retained highly skilled artisans to make luxury goods for their personal use. The long rooms would have served well as work areas to create obsidian jewelry, feather adornments, clothing, etc. The small spaces would have been used for storage of tools and materials. It is likely that the artisans, like the cooking staff, were sent outside the restricted areas at night.


Skull necklace. People of pre-hispanic Mesoamerica, and in New Spain and Mexico in later times, have always been fascinated by death and all its symbols. This necklace of little skulls, finely crafted from bone, fits well in the ancient tradition. It is the sort of luxury item that would have been created for the ruler and his family in the Acropolis' workshops.

This completes Part 7 of my Xochicalco series. I hope you enjoyed this visit to Xochicalco's Acropolis. If so, and you'd like to leave a comment or ask a question, please do so in the Comments section below or email me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so that I may respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

The North Ball Court viewed from the east end. The ceremonial complex that includes the Juego de Pelota Norte (North Ball Court) lies along the base of the high wall that borders the north sides of the Plaza Principal and the Acropolis. To Mesoamericans, the ball game was not just a public entertainment. The contest was permeated with deep and complex religious meanings. This is why ball courts were nearly always closely associated with ceremonial areas. The struggle between the teams symbolically represented the struggle of opposing cosmic forces: death and re-birth. This was further connected to the cycle of the seasons and fertility.


The North Ball Court Complex

Model of the North Ball Court Ceremonial Complex, looking southwest. The ball court can be seen in the bottom center of the photo. It consists of a long, narrow space bordered by two high walls. On each end of the walls, the court opens out into smaller rectangular spaces set perpendicularly to the long narrow space. The shape of the playing field is like a capital letter "I", laid horizontally. On a platform above the south wall of the ball court is the Temescal (sweat bath), the city's water collection system, and the Polychrome Altar. Just beyond the west end of the ball court is a small, grassy plaza with an entrance to an underground tunnel complex that leads to an ancient astronomical observatory. In this posting, I will show each of these areas and discuss the purposes for which they were used.


Map of the North Ball Court. The left side of the diagram shows the teotlachco (ball court) from directly above, with the east end on top and the west on the bottom. The small structure on the lower right of the court is the Temescal, which sits on top of the south wall of the court. From this angle, you can clearly see the "I" shape of the playing area. Typically, spectators would sit along the top of the north and south walls, or gather at either end of the court. On the right of the diagram is a cross section of a court wall, viewed from one end. There is a stone ring set high above the playing area, half way down the court, with another on the opposite side of the court in the same position. The high steep slope of the North Court's wall, with a ring set far above the playing area, makes the North Ball Court unlike either the South or East  Ball Courts of Xochicalco. However, it closely resembles a Zapotec court at Monte Alban in Oaxaca and the great Maya ball court at Chichen Itza in Yucatan. This once again shows Xochicalco's multicultural mix, with Teotihuacán, Maya, and Zapotec influences.



The stone rings now lie on the ground in the middle of the court. Passing a ball through the hole in the tlachtemalacatl (ring) was one way of scoring. The hard rubber balls used on this court could not have been much larger than a grapefruit, given the size of the rings. The rules for play are not known, except through interpretations of paintings and carvings showing players in action. Apparently, it was forbidden to use hands or feet to move the ball. Only the player's hips and chest could be used. Given that the rings were set into the walls at least 3 m (10 ft) above the field, scoring must have been difficult. Total scores were probably quite low, although the a game would sometimes be played from dawn to sunset. The players wore protective helmets and thick leather armor called yokes around their waists. Even with this amount of protection, the heavy balls sometimes caused injuries and even death.


Marker, found at the North Ball Court. The sculpture was carved in a semi-circular shape and set into place using the rectangular post at the bottom. At the center of the marker is a Zapotec glyph containing the left profile of a face with the eye closed, a symbol representing death. Around the face is a box and below it are two parallel lines. In the Zapotec numeric system the lines represent the number 10. On either side of the face is a foot and surrounding all this are scrolls and a feathered head dress. The glyph has been interpreted as "10 Death". The semi-circular shape imitates the course of the sun through the day. The sculpture was apparently placed so that the sun would pass through it at sunset, the "death" of the day. This may have marked the end of the game.


Carved decorations in the form of conch shells lined the top of the walls. The shell is one of a number of aquatic symbols found in the area of the ball court, the Temescal, and the water system. All of these symbols are related to Tlaloc, the Rain God. The games, therefore, were a critical part of the effort by the priestly elite to encourage Tlaloc to continue the cyclical rains and thus ensure good harvests. It should also be noted that conches are a symbol linking Tlaloc with Quetzalcoatl, the Plumed Serpent. He was the god who provided humanity with maiz (corn) and is further linked to Ehecatl, the Wind God who pushes the rain so that it arrives to nourish the fields. The belief that the priestly elite could intercede with the gods to ensure good harvests was the key to their power in Xochicalco's society.


The Temescal 

The Temescal sits atop the west end of the ball court's south wall. Steam baths have health benefits and can be pleasurable, but the primary purpose of the Temescal was religious purification. Those who were allowed to participate in these rites were the ball players and some important members of the elite. The walls of the steam bath were constructed from adobe and covered with stone. The roof was flat and supported by wooden rafters. The opening seen above was both an entrance and a channel which connects to the nearby water system.


The Temescal's entrance leads to a tub. At the back of the sweat lodge is a combustion room used to heat rocks. When the rocks were hot enough, they were sprinkled with water from the tub to produce the steam. Intense, steamy heat can produce trance-like or hallucinogenic experiences. During these, the participants apparently communed with the forces of the cosmos.


Carved conches were among the Temescal's decorations. The connection with water--and Tlaloc--is even more explicit here than in the ball court. Tlaloc is one of the oldest gods of the pre-hispanic pantheon. Appeals to a God of Rain are no doubt as old as agriculture itself. Tlaloc is probably pre-dated only by Huehueteotl, the God of Fire.


Another aquatic decoration found in the Temescal. This resembles one the "sand dollars" that can be found along the Pacific Coast. Sand dollars are the calcium carbonate shells of Clypeasteroida, an order of sea urchins. Conches and other sea shells were imported from the Pacific Coast along the trade routes dominated by Xochicalco. It is probable that these decorations were modeled on shells collected from the coastal beaches of Guerrero. That area was dominated at the time by Xihuacán, a trade partner of Xochicalco during the Epi-Classic era (650 AD - 900 AD).


Xochicalco's Water System

Examples of the drainpipes used in Xochicalco's water system. A drain pipe may seem pedestrian in comparison to exotic wall carvings or beautifully wrought jade jewelry. However the items above are just as emblematic of the creativity of Xochicalco's people as any luxury goods crafted by the city's artisans. In fact, the city's water system is one of its most remarkable features. Channeling and collecting water was important. It removed moisture from the roofs and patios of the various structures, preventing deterioration and water damage, a problem even of modern structures.


Water was channeled to this cistern from the Plaza Principal's structures. About half-way up the cistern wall on the left, you can see an opening. When the level in this cistern was approaching full, a plug would be removed so the water could be channeled to another, slightly lower cistern. When it flowed, the water spread out into a beautiful fan-shape, before dropping into the lower cistern. Another reason for the water system's importance was the scarcity of water sources on top of the mountain where Xochicalco was constructed. There were few, if any, springs that ran year round. Water could be brought from the lake to the south of the city, but there were no draft animals in North America at that time. The jugs would have had to be carried by hand for a considerable distance.



The lower cistern has two levels. Between this cistern and the one feeding it, a considerable amount of water could be collected for the use of the elite groups who lived on the upper levels of Xochicalco. It is unclear whether any of the common people had access to this water supply, but I would guess probably not. These cisterns were well within the areas of the city restricted to the elite.


Enjoying a cool dip. This drawing of a glyph shows an elite figure kicking back in one of the cisterns. Apparently they had recreational uses as well as a practical ones. Water was also channeled to the Temescal, so there were religious functions too. The entire water system was designed in advance of the construction of the city, which shows an extraordinary capacity to anticipate future problems and develop effective engineering solutions to overcome them.


The Observatory

Entrance to an underground passage leading to a celestial Observatory. Just to the west of the North Ball Court is a small, grassy plaza. The Observatory's entrance is located in the southeast corner at the top of a flight of stairs. From there, a set of tunnels leads to a chamber used for astronomical purposes. To gain access to the tunnel's mouth, you must pass through the North Ball Court from east to west. This symbolically connects the ball court with celestial observations. Processions of ancient astronomers, bedecked with feathered costumes and accompanied by flutes and drums, probably followed this route, which also marks the direction of the sun's movement from east to west. The route may further represent Quetzalcoatl's famous journey into Xibalba (the underworld) to recover the bones from which humanity was created.


Diagram of the tunnel system. The stairs are toward the bottom and the observatory is designated by the small circle at the top left of the tunnel. The tunnel system is much too extensive to be simply a passage to the small room used as the observatory. These passages may have provided space for other rituals, possibly related to Xibalba. Alternatively, they could have served for the storage of items, possibly food, that needed a constant cool temperature.


The main tunnel is surprisingly large. There is enough room here for several tall people to walk abreast in a fully upright posture. The passages were cut from the solid rock base under the Acropolis and Plaza Principal. A huge amount of work was necessary to remove all this rock. This is particularly true because only rock, wood, or bone tools were available. There is no evidence that metal tools had reached Xochicalco before it was abandoned in 900 AD.


The "chimney" by which the celestial observations were made. Although it resembles a chimney, channeling smoke was not its purpose. The hexagonally-shaped tube extends up into the Acropolis complex. The zenith of the sun occurs as it passes toward the Tropic of Cancer and then returns several months later. This happens between the 14th/15th of May and the 28th/29th of July. The shaft is designed so that when the sun is at its zenith, a hexagonal beam of light is projected down the chimney onto the center of the floor of the chamber. Recent analysis suggests that lunar eclipses can be predicted by using the tube to detect disturbances in the moon's movement close to the end of its cycles. The capacity to accurately predict the cycles of astronomical events enabled the priest-rulers to set the proper dates for planting and harvesting, as well as for other important cyclical events and their associated festivals. This demonstrated to the common people that the elite could at least predict, if not control, these cyclical occurrences. It is interesting to note that similar astronomical "chimneys" exist at the Zapotec capital of Monte Alban, and at the Matlazinca city of Calixtlahuaca.


Several additional tunnels pock the north wall. Their entrances were blocked, so we couldn't explore them. However, the diagram seen previously indicates that they do not connect with the observatory's tunnel system. Archaeologists speculate that these tunnels may have been used as quarries to provide material to build some of Xochicalco's structures. After the city was completed, they may have served as storage spaces.


The Polychrome Altar

The Polychrome Altar sits against the north wall, adjacent to the Temescal. The chamber containing the altar represents only about 20% of the original structure. This area was reconstructed, in part, to protect the altar seen above. Another purpose was to exhibit the ancient methods of stone masonry and roofing. The altar shows the talud y tablero style originating in Teotihuacán, from which at least some of Xochicalco's founders originated. The talud is the sloping lower wall of the altar, while the tablero is the vertical rectangular surface above it. Teotihuacán's influence was far reaching and, as a result, the talud y tablero style appears throughout Mesoamerica.


The Polychrome Altar gets it name from the traces of paint on its surface. The parallel wavy blue lines spaced vertically along the talud's surface may represent rippling water. The rectangular tablero area above the talud is also outlined with blue paint. In addition, a close examination shows some traces of red paint. This all indicates that the altar was once brightly painted in multiple colors, thus the name. Since both the nearby Temescal and water system are closely connected to Tlaloc, as is the North Ball Court, it is likely the altar was used for rituals dedicated to him.

This completes Part 8 of my Xochicalco series. I will finish this series with Part 9, when we will look at the East Ball Court Ceremonial Complex. I hope you enjoyed this posting and, if so, you will leave any comments or questions in the Comments section below. You can also email me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

The East Ball Court's Ceremonial Complex, looking northeast. The photo was taken from the top of the Temple of the Three Stelae. In the upper right is a rectangular pyramid overlooking a large grassy plaza surrounded by the remains of colonnaded porticos. Carole is the figure approaching the plaza's southern entrance. The ball court is out of sight behind the rectangular pyramid, running parallel to it on a lower level. A small pyramid stands just to the north of the rectangular pyramid. The North Pyramid's twin stands on the south end, out of sight. The East Ball Court is one of three at Xochicalco. They are different from one another in both structure and function. The South Ball Court (Part 2) was constructed on a lower level some distance from the elite part of the city. It was associated with the sacred 260-day calendar. The high-walled North Ball Court (Part 8) was linked to the underground astronomical observatory and to the worship of Tlaloc, the Rain God. The East Ball Court was the main arena where Xochicalco's elite, along with important visitors from other cities, would gather to watch the players settle political issues according to the favor of the gods.


Satellite view of the East Ball Court Ceremonial Complex. The top of the photo is the north end. Shaped like a capital "I", the court is located in the center of the complex. On its west side is the rectangular pyramid and the grassy plaza with its surrounding porticos. Two smaller pyramids stand to the north and south. On the north end of the playing field are rooms where players prepared before the games and cleaned up afterward. The open area on the south of the "I" was a plaza for post-game ceremonies lauding the winners. The losers were probably sacrificed on the altar in the lower right corner of this open area. On the middle of the east (right) side of the "I" is an additional viewing area for the use of dignitaries, probably from the visiting team's city. (Photo from Uncovered History).


The Ball Court


The East Ball Court, looking north. The shape of this court is similar to that of the South Ball Court. The long narrow playing area is bordered by low, slanting walls, very different from the steep, high walls of the North Ball Court. Like the other two courts, the East Ball Court had two rings through which a ball could be passed to score. They were set into the low walls on either side of the court at the mid-point. The tops of the low walls would have served as viewing areas for lower-status members of the elite. The players' preparation / cleanup rooms can be seen at the far end of the court. The games were sometimes used to settle political or military disputes. At other times, their function was to simulate the on-going struggle to maintain the balance of the cosmos and its astral cycles.


A ball court and pyramid sculpted from volcanic rock.  This carved stone clearly illustrates the sacred nature of the ball game. It is not known for certain whether the sculpture served as a construction model or was used during sacred rituals related to the game, or possibly both.


Ring from the East Ball Court. Unlike the other two courts, the East Ball Court's rings were covered with sacred animals carved in relief. The rectangular arm to the side of the ring was set into the wall to secure it. The hole in this ring appears to be somewhat smaller than the ones on the North and South Ball Courts. It may be that balls of different sizes were used, or perhaps the smaller size in this ring was to make the scoring on this court more difficult.


Drawing of the designs on the East court ring. At the top is a fanciful feline crouching with its claws on either side of the ring hole. The cat, perhaps a jaguar, wears a somewhat sinister smile. To the left of the creature's head are a pair of crossed bones. It may be that a similar pair once appeared on the right, but that area is too worn to tell. The bottom half of the ring is occupied by a pair of birds, one following the other. Given their long drooping tails, they may be quetzals. The highly revered birds were much sought-after for their plumage. Small dots drop from the birds' beaks. A dot in the Zapotec numeric system represented the number one.  If these are numbers, then they can be translated as two and three. Felines and quetzals were considered sacred in ancient Mesoamerica.



Ceremonial stone yokes represented the protective armor of the players.  Player's yokes were normally made from wood, leather, or rubber. They were worn around the mid-section of the body to protect the stomach and lower chest from the impact of the heavy rubber ball. This stone version would obviously have been much too heavy and cumbersome for use in actual play.  Stone yokes like the one above could weigh as much as 20 kg (45 lbs). Instead, they may have been used as trophies for winners or as grave goods for deceased players.


Caiman skull found near the ball court. The caimans is another animal symbolically linked to the ball game. It represents the Earth Monster whose devouring jaws consume the stars at sunset, seeds when planted, and human beings at death. The Earth Monster's entrails represent darkness, cold, and death. On the other hand, the elements are the prelude to the coming day, life, and the sprouting of seeds and fruits. The ancient ball games were reenactments of the cycles of life, conducted to ensure that these cycles continued uninterrupted.

The Ceremonial Complex

The North Pyramid. Below the back of this small pyramid are the players' preparation and cleanup rooms at the north end of the ball court. The function of this structure is unclear. Perhaps the ruler used it to exhort his team--sort of a pre-game pep talk. In addition, it would have been a good viewing once the game started.


The central, rectangular pyramid and part of its grassy plaza. The pyramid and plaza may have been used for pre-game ceremonies. This grassy area, enclosed by colonnaded porticos, would have accommodated one or both teams along with various officials and dignitaries. The ruler and his entourage would have looked down from the platform atop the staircase. Once the preliminaries were complete, and the players took the field, the ruler's group could turn and use their elevated perch to view the action on the playing field behind the pyramid. It would have functioned the same as a "skybox" atop a modern stadium, minus the human sacrifice, of course.


The western side of the grassy plaza, showing its colonnades. Only the stumps remain, but you can visualize the rectangular columns supporting a roof over a narrow arcade around three sides of the grassy plaza. In the distance is the east side of Plaza Principal's high stone wall, with the Temple of the Three Stelae looming above it. I took the first photo of this posting from that point.


The South Pyramid. Behind and below this structure is the small plaza just south of the playing field. At the end of the game, the ruler would have mounted the pyramid's staircase to congratulate the winners and officiate over the decapitation of the losers.


Another ceremonial structure lies to the south of the South Pyramid. It has a sunken patio, surrounded by colonnaded porticos. A small staircase stands on the right side of the sunken patio. The staircase may have led to an altar or perhaps a speaker's podium. Although this structure is clearly a part of the East Ball Court's ceremonial complex, I have not been able to find any information about it. Both its composition and its location indicate a ceremonial purpose. However, its specific function is not clear.


The Animal Ramp

The ramp contains paving stones with relief carvings of animals. A total of 271 stones are embedded in the ramp. They contain the images of birds, snakes, monkeys, butterflies, and other animals. The ramp leads up from the plaza below the South Pyramid and emerges on the south end of the rectangular pyramid. Its path passes between the South Pyramid and the sunken patio enclosure seen in the previous photo. This is obviously a route of considerable ceremonial importance. Many stones appear to be missing from the ramp. However, an additional 492 have been found throughout the area of the East Ball Court.


Carving of a bird with its wings extended and its beak open. The bird's tongue extends forward and its tail is spread. The curve of the beak indicates it may be a raptor such as a hawk or an eagle, both of them powerful animals imbued with great symbolic meaning.


A snake writhes its way across another paver. One theory is that these animal paving stones are the  personal symbols of teams or players. In other words, a pre-hispanic version of medieval coats-of-arms. However, there is another possibility. This relates to the Temple of the Goddess of Fertility, toward which the ramp leads.


Temple of the Goddess of Fertility

A temple entrance can be found in the side of the Plaza Principal's west wall. This opening is directly across from the top of the Animal Ramp. The temple is dedicated to the Goddess of Fertility, also known as the Earth Goddess. Since the earth is the place where all creatures breed, it is thought that the temple and the ramp are connected.


The Goddess of Fertility, also known as the Earth Goddess. She sits with her knees folded back under her and her hands held at chest level. The goddess wears a short feminine cape and a striped headband. Xochicalco's Goddess of Fertility may be a local version of Teotihuacan's Great Goddess, a powerful deity connected with water, fertility, and militarism. Although the statue is quite worn, it appears to have the nose pendant and protruding teeth that are characteristic of the Great Goddess. While the Great Goddess was very important at Teotihuacán, the level of militarism skyrocketed when that great empire fell in 650 AD. One reflection of this change was that female deities declined in importance. This may be why the Goddess of Fertility has been relegated to a tiny shrine within the outer wall of the Plaza Principal, while male gods like Tlaloc and Quetzalcoatl are prominent everywhere else in the city. However, although diminished in status, the Earth Goddess still seems to have been revered for her connection to the animal world.


Just as we finished our visit, an iguana popped out of the rocky debris. These are protected animals within the archaeological site and this one obviously had no fear of humans. On the other had, maybe it was a representative of the Earth Goddess, sent to say "hi!" I thought it was a fitting end to our visit.

This completes Part 9 of my Xochicalco series, and marks the end of the series itself. Congratulations if you have stuck with me through the whole 9-part series. I realize that some folks see these places as just another pile of old rocks. For myself, I remain fascinated by such sites and the incredible civilizations that once thrived in them. If you would like to leave a question or comment, please use the Comments section below or email me directly.

If you leave a question, PLEASE leave your email address so I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Sonajero dancers enter the atrium of Tuxpan's church. Each colonia  (neighborhood) fields its own troupe of dancers. The group above was one of many approaching from all parts of town as the Fiesta de Candelaria got under way. Last February 2, Carole and I brought two car-loads of friends to witness this extraordinary event. We first came to this fiesta in 2012 and the experience was stunning. When I described the fiesta to some friends last winter, they were eager to attend. Tuxpan's event combines multiple traditions, with roots dating back to the colonial and even pre-hispanic periods. The townspeople are wonderfully friendly and hospitable, particularly to foreign visitors. Tuxpan is a two-hour drive south of Lake Chapala, off Cuota #54, the toll road that leads from Guadalajara to Colima. For a Google map, click here.

Overview

Dancers packed the atrium in front of the Iglesia de San Juan Bautista. This broad, open plaza has a stand-alone cross in its middle (visible on the right). The Franciscans built the original church in 1536 and erected the cross not long after. While the church was rebuilt in later centuries, the original eight-sided cross remains and is the oldest colonial monument in Jalisco. The town's name comes from the Nahuatl language of the Aztecs and means "Place of the Rabbits."


These Tourist Police were all smiles when I asked to take their photo. Their attitude was typical of the local folks we met. Everywhere, people smiled at us and those that spoke English (a surprising number) asked if we'd like them to explain anything about the fiesta. While some of Mexico's fiestas are thronged with foreigners, Tuxpan's is different. Because it is somewhat off the beaten tourist track, almost all the spectators are from the local area. A significant portion of Tuxpan's population participates in one or another of the dance troupes.


Detail from a large mural at the Centro Cultural. There are multiple panels showing Tuxpan's history from pre-hispanic times to modernity. This one highlights the variety of dancers. We visited the Centro Cultural while waiting for the show to begin. The attached museum was closed and, seeking information about its hours, I stuck my head in an open door. A woman inside immediately invited us to sample some specially prepared pre-hispanic food. In the blink of an eye, we became honored guests at a banquet that included officials from Mexico City. While we tasted the various delicious dishes, a local poet recited his work and the officials gave speeches (all in Spanish, of course). The din of the fiesta was growing, so we thanked our hosts and joined the festivities outside. Mexico's famous hospitality is no myth.


People carrying gaily dressed dolls began to gather in front of the church. The dolls represent one of the fiesta's multiple threads of historical tradition. While the doll on the right is attired as a Sonajero dancer, most of the others were dressed like the one on the left. People of all ages and both sexes carried dolls--even teenage boys! According to the Bible, Jesus was presented by his parents at the Jewish Temple 40 days after his birth. Jewish religious law in the 1st Century AD forbade a woman to go to the temple for 40 days after giving birth because she was "unclean". February 2 occurs 40 days after December 25 and the occasion has come to be celebrated as Candelaria or Candlemass.


Sonajeros

The Sonajeros represent a tradition with deep pre-hispanic roots. The dancers perform in massed ranks, to the rhythm of the sonajeros (rattles) they each carry. The name can be applied either to the rattle or the dancer. When I first saw these dancers perform, I was reminded of the close-order drill that I learned during my military service. In fact, this is called the Dance of the Warriors and honors Xipe Tótec, the Aztec god who invented war. The rattle closely resembles the macuahuitl, a fearsome hand weapon the Aztec soldiers carried into battle. In ancient times, these were edged with razor-sharp obsidian. Today, instead of obsidian, a sonajero contains three sets of metal disks set in notches along the length of the instrument, with a handgrip at one end. When the instrument is shaken, the disks clash together, sounding somewhat like a tambourine. Hundreds of sonajeros, shaken in unison, create a rhythmic din.


The dancers wear vests of multi-colored ribbons. The vests mimic the cotton armor worn by the Aztec warriors. It provided some protection from arrows and other pre-hispanic weapons but was of little help against Spanish steel. Notice that these dancers have removed their sombreros and are holding them close to their sides. They did this just before entering the atrium, apparently a gesture of respect toward the church.


Women and girls danced as Sonajeros too. In fact, there didn't seem to be any gender or age bar to participation. It was a clear and sunny day in early February and the dancers' costumes covered them from head to toe. By noon, it had become pretty warm and I marveled at their stamina as they danced and twirled.


Although only four or five years old, this niña was a full participant. Even on a break, she continued to dance. There were lots of kids among the dancers, as well as some elderly folks. Participation is clearly a family affair.


Chayacates

Wearing antlers and carved wooden masks, the Chayacates now arrived. All their masks were in "whiteface" with Spanish-style beards and mustaches. The name for these dancers comes from the Nahuatl word chayácatl, which means "man wearing a mask".


An energetic pair of Chayacates led the troupe from the Colonia San Fabian. Each cuadrillo (troupe) carried a banner with the name of their colonia. Like the Sonajeros, all the Chayacates carried rattles which they shook in unison. The Chayacate rattles are made from hollow gourds filled with seeds.


Also like the Sonajeros, there are kids in the Chayacate cuadrillos. The origin of the Chayacate tradition harks back to a great epidemic in 1774. The local priest called upon everyone to pray to San Sebastian, the patron saint of people afflicted with plagues. The epidemic soon ended and the dance was inaugurated to thank the saint for his intervention. Statues of San Sebastian are carried by the faithful in the parade through town that begins when all the cuadrillos are assembled.


A cuadrillo of "blonde"Chayacates approaches the atrium. They are followed by another troupe with red "hair". The Spanish features, and the long blonde or red hair, hark back to another colonial tradition. Since disrespect toward their Spanish overlords could be dangerous, indigenous people sometimes used masks and dances to subtly mock their oppressors.

Güe Gües

A Güe Güe carrying a sword pauses for a breather. I have encountered these figures at indigenous dances all over Mexico, but I have yet to find a translation for the name. They always wear horrific monster masks and often carry a weapon like a wooden sword or a long whip. Güe Gües lead the processions or hover about the edges of the action. Their purpose is to frighten away evil spirits, as well as to entertain the crowd with their antics.


A Güe Güe leads a group of Sonajeros through the streets. Notice the red imitation blood on his sword. While most Güe Gües favor modern masks made of rubber, this one wears a more traditional version made from carved wood with vivid paint.


Kids, especially the young boys, seemed to favor the role. This group immediately began to cavort when they spotted my camera. Unlike the Sonajeros and Chayacates, the Güe Gües are not expected to keep in step with the dancers they accompany. This gives them considerable freedom of action and they take full advantage.


A handsome couple. A fanged devil and his skull-faced companion were eager to pose for me. It would be hard to find a finer pair of evil-spirit chasers.


Moros


This completes my posting on Tuxpan's Candelaria fiesta. I hope you enjoyed it. If so, please leave any comments or questions in the Comments section below, or email them to me directly. If you leave a question in the Comments section PLEASE leave your email address so I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Templo Santa María de la Asunción, seen through Plaza Hidalgo's arches. In April of this year, Carole and I set off to explore the area east of Mexico City and north of Puebla, about eight-hours by car from our home in Ajijic. We don't like to drive more than 4-5 hours in a day, so we picked Tequisquiapan as a stopover to break up the journey each way. We had visited once before, briefly, during our 2009 trip to Querétaro. The blog posting that I did then focused mostly on Tequisquiapan's lively folk art markets. This time, I will show the lovely plaza and the narrow, winding, colonial-era streets surrounding it. This Magic Pueblo is worth more of a visit than the short time we had allowed. I encourage you to check it out for yourself. To locate Tequisquiapan on a Google map, click here.


Posada del Virrey

We stayed at Hotel Posada del Virrey, a comfortable, mid-range hotel. It is located about 1.5 blocks from Plaza Hidalgo. The hotel offers free parking, which is a good thing considering the narrow streets and limited number of public parking areas. Tequisquiapan is definitely not laid out in the standard Spanish colonial grid pattern. The streets wind and twist and are often one-way only.  This makes for a great walking town, but is a headache to drive. I had to study Google maps carefully to find the best route to the hotel and back out of town again. Should you visit, I advise you to do the same. Here is a Google map showing our hotel and the Plaza Hidalgo area. You will notice that there are a large number of other hotels, since Tequisquiapan has become a week-end getaway for people from Querétaro and Mexico City.


The Posada's central courtyard. The two-story Posada del Virrey is built Mexican-style, with lovely gardens and atriums surrounded by open-air walk-ways with pillared arches called portales. The vivid purple flowers climbing up the pillars are bougainvillea. The windows on the right look into a small dining room that serves free continental breakfasts to guests. Full breakfasts are available but cost extra.


The rooms are named, rather than numbered. Ours (seen above) was called La Cueva (the Cave). This is probably because the only window looks into the interior atrium. Still, it was roomy, comfortable and contained all the amenities of a normal hotel room. Everything worked properly, which is not always the case in Mexican hotels. We have learned to always check for hot water and whether the TV remote is funcional. It's a good thing to test the bed too, lest you wind up with one of the dreaded Mexican mattresses that I swear they make out of concrete slabs. Having recently acquired an iPad, I have also learned to check the strength of the WiFi signal and to ask for a room closer to the hotel router, if necessary.


Plaza Hidalgo

Templo Santa Maria de la Asunción occupies the west side of Plaza Hidalgo. The original church was built in the 16th century, but its Neo-Classical replacement was constructed in the 19th. Templo Santa Maria was built from pink sandstone and its clock tower dates to 1897. Tequisquiapan, is pronounced tay-kees-kee-ya-pan. It comes from the Nahuatl language of the Aztecs and means "place of tequesquite" (potassium nitrate). This natural salt was used to flavor food in pre-hispanic times. The area has seen human occupation since 2500 BC. At the time the Spanish arrived, the Otomi people were dominant. However, there was a Chichamec presence and those fierce warriors resisted the Spanish incursion until they were finally defeated in the Battle of Media Luna (Half Moon) in the mid-16th century.


A street musician and his son play for restaurant patrons at the Plaza. The little boy carried a tambourine to accompany his dad, but also as a container to collect tips. Carole and I always support street musicians because the musicians can certainly use the money. Besides, we like having a live sound track for our lives.


The kiosco in the center of the Plaza is made from metal and grey sandstone. We understand that bands sometimes play jazz and rock music here, but none were performing when we visited. The Plaza's borders are lined with cast-iron benches, a favorite place for families, the elderly, and those (like ourselves) who enjoy people-watching.


A Mexican family enjoys the late-afternoon sun as a children's trolly passes. Notice nearly all of them are totally focused on their smart phones. The young man on the left is the only exception. He has a phone too, but has stopped his texting to watch the trolly pass. The internet revolution is in full swing in Mexico. I wonder how all this will affect Mexico's traditionally strong family ties.

Mounting a town's name in large colorful letters is popular in Mexico. The townspeople here have nicknamed their pueblo "Tequis" for short. Chapala, a few miles east of Ajijic on Lake Chapala, has a similar sign along its lakefront. Tequis was officially founded by the Spanish in 1551. Its first official name was Santa María de la Asunción de las Aguas Calientes. Once the Chichimecs were pacified, their lands were divided between the Otomi--who had allied with the Spanish against the Chichimecs--and Spanish settlers. The Otomi chief, whom the Spanish had re-named Nicolás de San Luis Montañez, received the title to the town. However, over the next 300 years, the Spanish acquired most of the Otomis lands, by fair means and foul.


Nearly always, one can get a good shoe shine in a Mexican plaza. Tequis is no exception. By 1656, the town had dropped its somewhat clumsy Spanish name. It had become known as Tequisquiapan. In spite of the increasing consolidation of land ownership in Spanish hands, the area remained mostly indigenous. As a result, Tequis never refashioned its town layout in the Spanish grid pattern and still retains the winding, indigenous character of its streets.


The south side of the Plaza is one long set of arched portales. The covered walkway runs in front of restaurants, galleries, and cafés. Second floor restaurants can be seen in the upper right, as well as at the far end of the portales. This shot provides a sense of the large size of the Plaza. During the period leading up to the 1810 War of Independence, impoverishment of the Otomis due to land ownership concentration resulted in numerous small rebellions on area haciendas. Even so, during the war itself, there were no major battles fought in the area.


Plazas are for lovers, too. This pair were unselfconsciously smooching just across from the restaurant table where I was sitting. Naturally, it called for a photo. During the 1910 Revolution, violence largely bypassed the area. However, Revolutionary armies did sack some of the haciendas, looking for supplies. Otomis may have felt grim satisfaction as those who had historically dispossessed them were in turn dispossessed. Revolutionary leader Venustiano Carranza briefly stopped at Tequisquiapan, on his way to sign the 1917 Constitution. At the time, he declared the town to be the "geographical center of Mexico." A monument marking that spot still exists, but the actual center of the country was later determined to be Zacatecas, far to the north.


Los Andadores

Several andadores radiate from the Plaza. An andador is a pedestrian-only street, often filled with cafés, restaurants, and street vendors. The orange building at the end of the street forms the southeast corner of the Plaza.


Vendors along the andador. They are selling baskets, handbags, clothes, food and nicknacks. Notice how their carts are on wheels so that they can be safely stored at night.


Restaurant La Quercia extends out into the andador. This is one of many we found in the area of the Plaza. Hanging out, sipping a beverage, chatting with table mates, and hailing passing friends all seem to be favorite pastimes in this town.


Portales at the southeast corner of the Plaza.Hidalgo Plaza can be seen between the pillars. When I reviewed my 2009 posting, I noticed how down-at-the-heel and crumbling the town looked then. Clearly, things are on the upswing because, during our 2017 visit, everything was well-kept and freshly painted.


Rambling 'round town

One of the narrow streets which radiate out from the plaza. These streets were clearly intended for horses, carriages, and foot traffic. As a result, most of them must be one-way to accommodate modern automobiles. I would suggest avoiding a weekend visit because the traffic then is reputed to be terrible.


The steeple and dome of the church are visible nearly everywhere. This helps in keeping one's bearings while moving about town.


Parque de la Pila is a couple of blocks north of Plaza Hidalgo. The large park is filled with huge old trees that provide welcome shade. There are fresh water springs here and, in 1567, a water mill and reservoir were built here. The mill is gone, but the reservoir and its water channels still exist.


A winding, tree-shaded andador provides a secluded spot for lovers. Except for us, this young couple had the whole place to themselves.


Colonial-era moon-landing vehicle? This odd structure caught our eyes as we wandered the back streets. After inspecting it, I came to the conclusion that it is a rather elaborate old well, possibly part of Parque La Pila's original water system.


Colonial-era house, across the street from Hotel Posada Virrey. The entrance door is framed by two large barred windows. The old carriage entrance is the large door to the right of the right-hand window. There is almost certainly a lush courtyard garden, probably with a fountain, just beyond the entrance doorway.


Music for sale. These two guys were in search of customers for their guitars and other stringed instruments. Not musically inclined? The fellow on the left has several rope hammocks slung over his shoulder.

This concludes my posting on the Magic Pueblo of Tequisquiapan. I hope you have enjoyed it and, if so, please leave any comments or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Plumed Serpent heads adorn the oldest pyramid within the Citadel, giving it a name. After stopping overnight in Tequisquiapan (see previous posting), Carole and I continued on to the famous ruins of Teotihuacán. This great city was the capital of the Classic Era (100 BC - 650 AD) empire. My posting this week focuses on the great Citadel, located at the southern end of the Avenue of the Dead. In later parts of this series, I will cover the residential areas along Avenue of the Dead, the palaces on the periphery of the overall site, and Teotihuacán's two fascinating museums. The ruined city stands on the edge of a small town called San Juan Teotihuacán de Arista, located 40 km (25 mi) northeast of Mexico City. To find the town and its ruins on a Google map, click here.

The city and its great Citadel.


Site map of Teotihuacán. This was our second visit to the ancient city. During our first, we were touring southern Mexico and our bus stopped at the huge site for only a couple of hours. Consequently, we just got to see the northern section of the Avenue of the Dead, including the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon and the Palace of Quetzalpapálotl. To check out that area of Teotihuacán, go to my 2010 blog posting entitled "Where the Gods Were Born". There was no time during our first visit to check out the area south of the Pyramid of the Sun. In order to cover as much ground as possible, we allotted two full days for our second visit. We decided to start with the Citadel and its Pyramid of the Plumed Serpent.


Model of the Citadel in the Museum of Teotihuacán Culture. The Citadel is surrounded by a wall that is 7 m (23 ft) high and 134 m (440 ft) on each side. On top of this perimeter wall are 15 small stepped-pyramids, four each on the north, south, and west sides, and three on the east. All these pyramids were once topped by temples made of perishable materials, but those are all gone now. The Citadel's only entrance is a broad staircase located between the middle two pyramids of the east side wall. In the photo above, the east wall extends from the lower left to the center right, with the Avenue of the Dead running parallel to it. The Plumed Serpent Pyramid is on the opposite (west) side of the sunken plaza from the entrance. On the left side of the Pyramid are ruins of workshops used to make religious objects and, on the right, housing for the priests of the Plumed Serpent cult. The model above doesn't show it, but a square altar stands in the center of the Sunken Plaza This model is part of a much larger scale model of the whole ancient city. The full model is as big as a modern tennis court and shows not only the excavated features but also unexcavated streets and structures extending out in all directions. To view all this, visitors walk on an elevated glass bridge. I definitely recommend a visit the Museum of Teotihuacán Culture (also known as the Manuel Gamio Museum) as your first step in exploring the city. The contents of the museum, and particularly the model, will help you better understand this ancient empire and its capital city.


Scepter found near the Citadel's Pyramid of the Plumed Serpent. This wooden scepter, with its Plumed Serpent head, has been radiocarbon dated to 70 AD and was apparently left as an offering sometime prior to the construction of the pyramid. The photo shows only the head of the scepter. The whole piece is about 1 m (3 ft) long. Teotihuacán has been explored and excavated for more than 100 years. This unique object is the only wooden artifact ever found there. The natural environment of the area is not conducive to the preservation perishable materials.


Entrance stairs and perimeter wall temples

View of the Citadel entrance. The entrance staircase is in the upper right of the photo. Next to it, in the upper left, you can see one of the east wall's pyramids. There is an identical pyramid on the other end of the staircase. In the background is the Plumed Serpent Pyramid. This shot was taken from the second-floor restaurant looking east across the Avenue of the Dead.


Carole gazes north, up the Avenue of the Dead. She is standing at the base of the Citadel's entrance staircase. The purpose of the perimeter wall's fifteen small pyramids is not clear. Some speculate that the perishable structures on their tops functioned as administrative facilities. Others have theorized that they were for civil and religious ceremonies, possibly related to cyclical events.

The Sunken Plaza and its Central Altar


A large, square altar stands in the center of the Sunken Plaza. You are looking east here. The altar has stairways leading up from each side, corresponding to the four sacred directions: north, south, east, and west. This orientation links the altar to the overall design of the Citadel and of Teotihuacán itself. Ancient Mesoamericans believed that the cosmos had five sacred points. These included the four sacred directions, plus a point in the center where their lines cross. Teotihuacán was consciously designed to imitate the pattern of the cosmos. The Citadel stood at the sacred center point of the city and, by extension, of the cosmos. Today, the Avenue of the Dead runs south from the base of the Pyramid of the Moon to the Citadel. However, in ancient times, the Avenue (as well as the city) extended for a considerable distance to the south of the Citadel. A second avenue once ran from west to east, perpendicular to the Avenue of the Dead. These two avenues divided Teotihuacán into four "districts". The western avenue ends at the entrance of the Citadel. A line from that point would run through the center of the altar above to the center of the base of the Pyramid of the Plumed Serpent. Teotihuacán was designed as a giant cosmic map, with the Citadel as its sacred center.


The Quetzalcoatl Pyramid has two sections, built at different times. The original pyramid, is on the left, its edges rounded by erosion. The newer section, called the Adosado (Adjacent) Platform, stands on the right. It was added centuries later and its edges are clean and sharp. To understand the sequence of construction, it is useful to review Teotihuacán's timeline. Archeologists have divided it into several phases.

• Formative phase (800-100 BC). A time of small farms and villages. 
• Patlachique phase (100 BC-1 AD). Beginning of urbanization. City grows to 5000 residents. 
• Tzacualli phase (1-150 AD). Pyramid of the Sun is built. 30,000 residents. 
• Miccaotli phase (150-250 AD). Both the Pyramid of the Moon and the Pyramid of the Plumed Serpent are constructed. Population rises to 45,000. 
• Tlalmimilolpa phase (250-450 AD). Adosado Platform is added to the Plumed Serpent Pyramid. The Citadel is created by surrounding the area with a perimeter wall topped by 15 small pyramids. 65,000 inhabitants.
• Xolalpan phase (450-650 AD). Teotihuacán's power and influence peak. Population hits 85,000-100,000 (some have estimated as high as 200,000). 
• Metepec phase (650-750 AD). Elite areas of the city are sacked and burned, probably by an internal revolt. Population declines from 70,000 to complete abandonment by the end of this phase.

Interestingly, the Adosado Platform was built so that its rear (east) wall completely covered the highly decorated face of the old pyramid. The Adosado section has severe lines and none of the elaborate decoration of the older pyramid.


View of the Adosado Plaform, looking south. The tourists on the top of the platform give a sense of its size. Some archeologists theorize that the Adosado structure was added after a military elite seized power from the priest-rulers during the Tlalmimilolpa phase. The priest-rulers had controlled the city up to that time and had built the original Plumed Serpent Pyramid to use as their power base. When the Adosado Platform was built, three of the four sides of the old pyramid were defaced of their decorations. The fourth side was totally covered by the east wall of the Adosado Platform. According to this theory, the decorations were removed because they symbolized the old priestly elite. Out with the old, in with the new. There is a fascinating side-note to this. About this same time, a group of Teotihuacanos traveled south to the Maya kingdom of Tikal (in today's Guatemala). There, they staged a coup, overthrowing the Maya king and installing their leader as head of a new dynasty. What followed was a burst of Teotihuacán-style architecture in Tikal and its allied cities and a new emphasis on worship of the Plumed Serpent. Some archeologists suggest that these people might have been followers of Teotihuacán's Plumed Serpent cult, led by the deposed priest-rulers.


View from atop the Adosado Platform

View over the Sunken Plaza toward the Citadel's entrance stair way. You are looking directly west, toward where the sun will set. This would have been important for ceremonies conducted either on the old Plumed Serpent Pyramid, or atop its Adosado Platform addition. The white tent in the foreground covers the entrance to a tunnel, discovered in 2011. The serpentine passage lies 15 m (50 ft) underground and extends 130 m (427 ft) all the way to the area under the old pyramid. Scientists have determined that the tunnel was sealed off approximately 200 AD, during the Miccaotli phase. They are hopeful of finding a royal tomb in one of the sealed chambers at the end of the tunnel. Although they have not yet done so, the search is continuing. Even without royal tombs, their discoveries, to date, have been extraordinary. The tunnel walls are inscribed with esoteric symbols and covered with metallic dust. The floor contains hundreds of small clay spheres covered with glittering iron pyrite ("fool's gold"). By the light of flickering torches--the way the ancients would have seen it--the appearance is one of traveling through the cosmos. In 2014, scientists opened one of the chambers at the tunnel's end. There, they found large quantities of mercury, along with statues wearing jade ornaments, weapons encrusted with precious stones, the remains of a jaguar, seeds from different plants and a box of carved shells and rubber balls. So far, a total of 50,000 objects have been recovered from the tunnel. Clearly these artifacts were for religious rituals, although the purpose of the mercury is unclear. The discovery of the rubber balls particularly interests me. Although the great majority of ancient Mesoamerican cities had ball courts for playing the sacred game, none have ever been discovered at Teotihuacán. In addition to the rubber balls, other ball game implements have been found elsewhere in the city. As yet, there is no explanation for the absence of ball courts.


View from the Adosado's top, looking north. This view gives a sense of the immense size of the Sunken Plaza. It is estimated that 100,000 people--the entire population of the city--could have assembled for great ceremonies within the walls of the Citadel. The small pyramids on top of the perimeter wall are reached by ascending the two-stage staircases and then crossing the broad top of the wall. Ceremonies of considerable size could have been conducted in front of any one of these small pyramids. In addition to religious and civic ceremonies, some archeologists think that the plaza may have functioned as the site of the city's market.


View from the top, looking south. Just in front of the south wall is a covered structure that protects a structure with an unknown function. There was no explanatory sign at the site and my research has revealed no information about it. It also does not appear on the scale model seen earlier in this posting. I would appreciate comments from anyone who can identify this structure.

The Plumed Serpent Pyramid 

View of the west side of the pyramid from the top of the Adosado Platform. This whole section was once covered by the Platform. Originally, the pyramid had at least six stepped levels and was topped by a temple made of perishable materials. Before the Platform was built, the carvings of the north, south, and east sides were stripped away. Only the west side decorations, seen above, have survived. Fortunately, those who constructed the Adosado Platform simply buried this side of the pyramid under the platform's east side. Thus, perhaps unintentionally, they preserved all these remarkable high-relief carvings.


View of the right-hand staircase balustrade and several of the decorated levels. The rich carvings served multiple purposes: to awe the viewer, to tell a story, and to serve as a religious calendar. At least two deities were worshiped here, one related to fertility and the other to war. Sculptures of the Plumed Serpent heads were placed at regular intervals up the balustrades on either side of the grand staircase. The Plumed Serpent also appears on each of the pyramid's stepped levels, alternating with an abstract figure, the meaning of which is much disputed. In addition, a long snake body writhes along the base of each level and there are numerous seashells--symbolizing water--carved into the stone walls.


These figures appear all across the vertical faces of each level. On the right is the famous Plumed Serpent. On the left is a strange, abstract figure with two circles in its center. These two figures alternate all across each stepped level. Separating the Plumed Serpent and the abstract figure are two conch shells with a scallop shell between them. Just below all this is the scaly body of a snake. At the place where the snake's body curves are more conches, scallops, and other shells. Note that all these shells are from salt water creatures. Although Teotihuacán is situated hundreds of miles from either the Gulf Coast or the Pacific, the ancient empire had a trading network with a very long reach. Each level of the pyramid duplicates all the elements that I just described. The entire pyramid, was once painted in vivid colors, traces of which remain after 1,500 years.


The Plumed Serpent is the easiest figure to decipher. It is one of the oldest religious images of Mesoamerica, going back to Olmec times (1500 BC- 400 BC). More than 650 years after the fall of Teotihuacán, the Aztecs gave the Plumed Serpent the name Quetzalcoatl. The name comes from quetzal, a bird with brilliant plumage, and coatl, meaning snake. It is not certain whether the Plumed Serpent meant exactly the same thing to the Teotihuacanos that   Quetzalcoatl did to the later Aztecs. However, Mesoamerican religious traditions were very stable and long-lasting and the Aztecs revered Teotihuacan, which in the Nahuatl language of the Aztecs means "Place where the gods were born." According to the Aztec myth, Quetzalcoatl was one of the gods who created the 5th World, in which humans live. He delivered maiz (corn) to humanity and thus enabled the development of agriculture and civilization. He is also credited with creating the calendar system. The eye sockets of these sculptures were once filled with obsidian (volcanic glass), causing them to glitter in the setting sun and in the flickering of torches at night. The necklace of feathers, which shows traces of red paint, represents the leaves of plants and thus the harvest. The feathers may also represent the rays of the sun which, along with water, are another key element of fertility. The eyebrows curl back in a double spiral, representing duality, a key concept in Mesoamerican cosmology. Archeologists estimate that there were once a total of 260 Plumed Serpent heads on the pyramid, one for each day of the sacred calendar. Every Plumed Serpent on the pyramid has a gaping mouth. Some sort of marker may have been moved from mouth to mouth each day as the 260-day calendar moved through its sacred cycle. The pyramid thus could have served as a way to track the passage of cosmic time.


Alternating with the Plumed Serpents are these enigmatic figures. It was long assumed that the figure above represents Tlaloc, the rain god. The two prominent circles suggest the "eye goggles" nearly always associated with the rain god. Further, conch shells and other water symbols closely related to Tlaloc are found all along each stepped level. However, archeologists are a notoriously disputatious bunch. Some insist that this represents Cipactli, often depicted as a giant crocodile. The figure does seem to be covered with scales. Upon closer examination, the circles may not be eye goggles at all, but part of the decoration of the monster's hat. According to some authorities, the shape of the hat represents the Teotihuacán sign for the year. Taken together with the circles, the hat would symbolize war. When I looked closer, I realized that the eyes of the crocodile may actually be just below and on either side of the circles. If they are eyes, they have the same curling eyebrows as the Plumed Serpent. Cipactli and the Plumed Serpent appear together in some Mesoamerican creation myths, which may explain why they are shown together on the pyramid. Still another view is that this is the Fire Serpent, who carries the sun on its journey across the sky. The Maya name for the Plumed Serpent is Kukulkan. According to their myth, Kulkulkan cavorted with the Fire Serpent in a watery environment. The Maya believed the Plumed Serpent represented life and peace, while the Fire Serpent represented desert heat and war. This was yet another expression of cosmic duality. Finally, there is a theory that the figure is not a god/creature at all, but a symbolic headdress, worn on the back of the Plumed Serpent. I'll leave it to you which interpretation to believe.


Detail of the serpent body below the Plumed Serpent and his enigmatic friend. The serpent's scaly body curves along the base of each level, and each loop displays a variety of shells.


The long body ends in a dramatic snake head. A forked tongue extends from its mouth and the creature has the same curling eye brows as the Plumed Serpent and the Tlaloc/Cipactlit/Fire Serpent figure. The snake head has a nose that curls back, which is one of the notable characteristics of a Fire Serpent.

The Plumed Serpent Pyramid and human sacrifice

Locations of sacrificed human remains found at the Plumed Serpent Pyramid. The dark brown squares, rectangles, and the circle in the center show excavated burials. The shaded squares and rectangles show where archeologists believe additional people are interred, based on the overall pattern. The closer the graves are to the center of the pyramid, the richer their goods. The burials occurred between 150 AD and 250 AD, probably during the construction of the pyramid. Finding evidence of human sacrifices is not unusual at Teotihuacán or in Mesoamerica generally. In fact several such burials have been found at both the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon. It is the number of sacrifices at the Plumed Serpent Pyramid that is unusual. Counting the actual and hypothetical bodies, archeologists believe that 260 individuals were killed and buried either inside or immediately around the pyramid. The number 260 is significant because it represents the total number of days in the sacred calendar. That calendar is made up of 13 months of 20 days each and graves were found on each side of the pyramid that contained groups of 13 and 20 skeletons. Among Quetzalcoatl's many accomplishments, according to the much later Aztec myths, he was responsible for the creation of the calendar. Clearly, from the 260 Plumed Serpents that once graced the exterior of the pyramid, to the 260 humans sacrificed and carefully buried during its construction, cosmic time was central to the meaning and purpose of this pyramid.



Grave of nine male individuals found at the pyramid. Graves with varying numbers of sacrificed individuals were found within the general pattern. The individuals in the trench above wore elaborate necklaces and other jewelry, indicating high status. In addition, scattered in the grave were obsidian blades and arrowheads. It is not clear whether the blades were used during the sacrifice or whether the men were killed in some other way. Inspection of the skeletons hasn't revealed any obvious trauma or cut marks. Some authorities have speculated that they were strangled. What is clear is that they were not volunteers. The victim's hands are behind their backs, indicating that their wrists had been bound. Relief carvings, statues, and wall murals all over Mesoamerica show sacrificial victims--usually war captives--bound in this way.


Necklace worn by one of the sacrificial victims. The necklace's seven U-shaped pendants were crafted from conch and scallop shells. They imitate the maxillae, or lower jaws of human beings. Along with the shell designs found on the exterior of the pyramid, these necklaces may indicate a further emphasis on the water theme. However, archeologists also have noted that warriors sometimes wore jewelry like this to commemorate the number of men they had killed in battle. Most of the male remains found in the various graves were men of military age, which lends credence to this theory. Who were these people, and why were they chosen for sacrifice? Were they captives, taken in battle? Recent high-tech scientific analysis has only increased the mystery surrounding these burials.


Detail of the nine-person grave, showing the jaw-bone necklaces. Interestingly, some of the necklaces were made from real human teeth and jaws. If these were soldiers, did they keep and wear physical trophies from the men they had killed in battle? Note the obsidian arrowheads in the upper left. Their position in relation to the skeletons indicates that they were placed there as offerings and not used to kill the victims. Otherwise, the arrowheads would have been found within the ribcages or in other lethal locations. When scientists tested the skeletons, their DNA showed that nearly all were foreigners, i.e. they had not been born in Teotihuacán. However, the minerals of their teeth indicate that they had lived in Teotihuacán for considerable lengths of time before they were sacrificed. This suggests that they were not war captives, since such prisoners were usually sacrificed soon after their capture. Possibly they (at least the men) were foreign mercenaries in Teotihuacán's army. The high status jewelry, particularly if it does indicate war kills, suggests that they may have been part of an elite unit. But why sacrifice such valuable men? Were special victims, possibly chosen by lot, required for the dedication of such an important pyramid? Or, had they transgressed in some way, perhaps by participating in a mutiny or coup attempt? As each question about these burials is answered, more arise. After 100+ years of excavation, Teotihuacán is still full of mysteries.


Skeletons of four females sacrificed at the Plumed Serpent Pyramid. Their personal adornment included earflaps and necklaces fashioned from conch shells. Also found with the skeletons were slate disks and some obsidian points, positioned at the posterior, at about the height of the thigh. Like the men, their personal ornamentation indicates that they may have been high status individuals.

So, in sum, Teotihuacán's Citadel played a very significant role in the city. It functioned as an administrative center and as the gathering place for huge public markets. It was designed to be the physical center of the city, dividing it into four districts. By extension it was also the center of the Teotihuacán Empire. The Citadel played a much more fundamental role, however. It was the symbolic center of the Teotihuacán cosmos, with the Pyramid of the Plumed Serpent functioning as a huge cosmic calendar.

This completes my posting. I hope you found it interesting. If you would like to leave a comment or question, please do so in the Comments section below, or email me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

View to the north, up the Avenue of the Dead. The Avenue ends at the Pyramid of the Moon, seen in the distance, with the mountain called Cerro Gordo in the background. The Pyramid of the Sun stands to the right (east) of the Avenue. The Avenue of the Dead and its two great pyramids are the most famous parts of Teotihuacán, drawing thousands of visitors every year. When Carole and I visited in 2010, we briefly toured this section of the ancient city. I have since done a great deal of research about it and, in the meantime, archeologists made several important discoveries. In this posting, I will focus on aspects of the Avenue and the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon that I didn't talk about in my 2010 posting.


Scale model showing the northern section of the Avenue of the Dead. This is a section of a much larger model housed in the Museum of Teotihuacán Culture. The museum is located near the back side of the Pyramid of the Sun. The Avenue of the Dead is 40 m (130 ft) wide and runs north to south, bisecting the city. The preserved section is 2 km (1.24 mi) long. It extends from the base of the Pyramid of the Moon (top center of photo) to just south of the Citadel, located just below the bottom of the photo. However, the Avenue once extended another 3 km (1.86 mi) past the Citadel, through what are currently farm fields and private land. Teotihuacán was wide, as well as long, extending 4 km (2.5 mi) from east to west. At the Avenue's approximate center point, it was once perpendicularly crossed by another great avenue, also 40 meters wide. These two streets broke the city into quadrants. Within the four quadrants, many smaller streets ran parallel or perpendicular to the great Avenues in a carefully designed grid pattern. The Avenue of the Dead was key to Teotihuacán's overall urban plan and its builders lined it with important ceremonial and elite residential areas.


Construction tools used to build Teotihuacán. The two tools at the bottom were probably used for smoothing the lime stucco plaster that once covered most of the stone buildings. Similar tools are still used by cement workers in the 21st century. The large piece above them may be a model for the classic talud y tablero stonework that is Teotihuacán's architectural trademark. The talud is the sloping bottom section. Notice the red painted plaster that still covers part of it. The tablero is the rectangular, frame-like, vertical section. This style was imitated for hundreds of years after Teotihuacán's fall, by cultures as far away as the Maya of Guatemala. As they say, imitation is the sincerest form of flattery.


More tools. The ones at the top are plumb bobs, used to set a vertical reference line for determining a true 90 degrees. The plumb bob dates back as far as the ancient Egyptians. It is fascinating to me that the Mesoamerican civilizations produced so many tools virtually identical to those created by Old World civilizations. This occurred even though there had been no contact between the two worlds since the mastadon hunters followed their prey across the Bering land bridge from Siberia to Alaska 20,000 years ago. The purpose of the two tools at the bottom is unclear. There was no sign at the exhibit and I would be happy if anyone can provide an identification. Several different kinds of stone were employed in construction. These included basalt, a very hard and heavy stone, and tezontle, a volcanic rock that is much smoother, lighter, and easier to work. Between 1 AD and 150 AD, Teotihuacáns used tools like these to build the Pyramid of the Sun, an astonishing achievement. It was the 2nd largest pyramid in the Americas at that time. La Danta Pyramid at El Mirador in northern Guatemala was (and still is) the largest, but it had been abandoned for some time when the Pyramid of the Sun was built. Teotihuacán's feat was especially remarkable because it was a society without metal tools, the wheel, or draft animals. Using only tools of bone and stone, with only human muscle for power, Teotihuacano architects, engineers, and workers built one of the greatest metropolises in the ancient world, including the largest pyramid ever constructed in the part of the Americas that now comprises modern Mexico.


 Chart showing the diversion of the Rio San Juan from its natural course. It originally passed diagonally from east to west through the site on which the Citadel was later built. Its original course is shown with the green line above. Between 150 AD and 250 AD, the course was diverted to run due west across the Avenue of the Dead, then south to parallel it, then west again before turning southwest to resume its former course. This required cutting down through solid bedrock to create a great canal, an immense engineering project. Aside from opening up the area where the Pyramid of the Plumed Serpent would be built, and later the Citadel which surrounds it, the canal was designed so that the city's rainwater drainage system could feed into it. At the point where the canal crosses the Avenue of the Dead, archeologists have found traces of an ancient stone bridge. Altogether, the river diversion was another astonishing piece of work.


Sculpture from a structure along the Avenue of the Dead. The stone figure has a deformed face with a twisted nose and mouth. Cultures in Mesoamerica believed that people with deformities possessed special, supernatural powers. They were honored rather than abhorred. In addition to stone sculptures, the Avenue was decorated with painted murals, some of which can be seen in my 2010 Teotihuacán posting.

How the Teotihuacanos saw themselves. This greenstone funerary mask is one of many found at Teotihuacán. At one time, the eyes may have been filled with conch or abalone shell, giving the face an uncannily realistic appearance. The mask's full, parted lips and wide, narrow eyes represent a distinct style, recognizable by anyone familiar with this civilization. The Avenue of the Dead, between the Citadel and the Pyramid of the Sun, consists of a succession of long, rectangular plazas, each raised above the one before, leading toward the Pyramid of the Moon. Both sides of the Avenue are lined with small temple platforms and elite residential compounds. In this posting, I'll walk you through this area and show you some artifacts typical of those that would have been used by the elite figures who lived here. For a Google satellite view of this section of the Avenue of the Dead, click here.

Northwest San Juan River Complex

Small patio within the large complex. The view here is to the southeast. The Northwest San Juan River Complex is located along the west side of the Avenue of the Dead, just north of where it crosses the San Juan River. The river is lined by the trees you see at the top of the photo. The complex is laid out following the general design of Teotihuacán itself: north-to-south and east-to-west. The mixture of residences with small temples and other ceremonial areas reflects the nature of a society where religion was interwoven with all aspects of life. For a Google satellite view of this complex, click here.


Almena showing water droplets. The Spanish word almena translates as "battlement". However, in the pre-hispanic context, almenas were decorative features that lined the cornices of buildings. They often contained symbolic elements, such as these water droplets. Water was crucial to all aspects of pre-hispanic life, especially for growing the staple food, maiz (corn). The Northwest San Juan Complex appears to have been the site of festivities relating to the rain or storm god Tlaloc and other deities related to agriculture.


The remains of a plastered wall still show signs of red paint. The insides of elite dwellings were plastered with lime and then painted, with red being one of the most popular colors. The red paint most often used was specular hematite, which includes tiny particles of mica to add a muted sparkle. Sometimes the walls were covered with murals containing religious themes. Archeologists believe that the Northwest Complex was built between 150-200 AD, during the Miccaotli Phase when the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon were being constructed.


Remarkably realistic bust of a male Teotihuacano. Again, we see the lips and eyes that make this style so distinct. However, a non-Teotihuacán influence may also be present here. Only a few pre-hispanic civilizations ever mastered the technique of sculpture-in-the-round. Arguably, none were better at this than the Maya. Teotihuacán had strong trading links with the Maya world and there was a Maya presence within the city itself. The purpose of this sculpture is not clear, but it may have been used as a censer to burn copal incense.


Raised platform showing Teotihuacán's signature talud y tablero style. Another famously recognizable Teotihuacán style is called talud y tablero, seen on the sides of the platform above. This style was expressed as a vertical, recessed, rectangular space (the tablero), paired with a sloping wall below (the talud). You will find these features everywhere in Teohuacán. They can also be found in every place where Teotihuacán's influence reached, even as far away as the ancient city of Tikal in northern Guatemala. The pyramidal structure seen in the upper left, in the distance, is the south side of the Pyramid of the Sun.


Water pot, drinking cup, and small clay face. The clay pot is typical of those used to store water in residential areas. The cup may have been used to dip water from a pot like this. The small face appears to have been mass-produced in a Teotihuacán workshop by artisans using a mold. Little clay faces like this were manufactured and sold to be used as ritual offerings.


This sunken space within the complex may have been a cistern. I found several similar spaces within the complex. None of them had steps leading down inside, so they wouldn't have been used as living areas. The most likely purpose would have been to store water. Teotihuacán's builders created a sophisticated system of channels and drains to capture and channel rain runoff. The cistern may have been kept full in this way. Clay water pots, like the one seen previously, would have been filled here to supply the residents living in the immediate area.  The remains of two columns stand in front of the room on the left. These appear to have supported a roof which once shaded a small terrace overlooking the water pool.

Plaza C

This is the largest of the Avenue of the Dead's several plazas. The surface covers 7595 sq m (8306 sq yd). In the center is the stone base for a temple once made of perishable materials, but long since disappeared. There are three platforms on the west (right) side. On the east (left) side, there are four, including one that is a small pyramid. The size of the plaza, the central temple/altar, and the number of temples surrounding it, all clearly indicate an important ceremonial space. I took this shot from atop the staircase at the north end of Plaza C, looking toward the south.



Small ceramic pot used for offerings. The pot has been dated to the period between 250-450 AD, called the Tlamimiolpa Phase. During this time, the Citadel was constructed and Teotihuacán expanded its influence throughout Mesoamerica, both by peaceful trade and conquest.


Temple platform on the west side of Plaza C. The Avenue of the Dead is lined with temple platforms like this for its entire length between the Pyramid of the Moon and the Citadel. Various reasons have been proposed for this large number of roughly similar structures. One theory relates to Teotihuacán's ethnic makeup. It was a multi-cultural society, with enclaves of Maya, Zapotecs and other groups. At least some of these structures may have been devoted to gods particular to those groups.

Plaza B

Plaza B, the next in the string, has no central temple or altar. The view here is from the southern end of the plaza, looking north. The Pyramid of the Sun can be seen in the top center. In the upper left, at the base of the mountain, you can just make out the Pyramid of the Moon. In addition to lacking a central altar or temple, this plaza differs in other ways from those to its north and south. First, Plaza B is the smallest of the plazas, measuring 3723 sq m (4072 sq yd). Second, it is bordered with what appear to be residential spaces, rather than temples and pyramids. Plaza B is reached by climbing the broad staircase that forms the north end of Plaza C.


Dancer, wearing jewels and rattles. Public dances may have been one of the functions of Plaza B. The small figure above wears ear spools and a necklace. Both would have been made of jade in real life. The dancer is bare-chested and wears a short loincloth held up by a rather interesting belt. His lower legs are covered with rattles made from scores of seed pods containing small stones, and laced to his legs with leather straps. The plaza is large enough for hundreds of dancers to assemble. Imagine the sound of those thousands of rattles, as the dancers stamped to the rhythm of drums while conch shells mournfully wailed. Add the flickering light of torches and bonfires, with copal incense wafting through the air, and you have the makings of a first-rate spectacle.


The north end of Plaza B is spanned by another broad staircase. Beyond it is Plaza A, followed by two additional plazas, and then the Plaza del Sol in front of the Pyramid of the Sun. Rather than continuing on to the north, Carole and I decided to explore the West Plaza, which occupies the area just west of Plaza B. We left the northern plazas, with their additional temples and pyramids for another visit.

The West Plaza

The West Plaza is reached by way of an enclosed walkway. The steel grid path and chains prevent damage to the surrounding structures but, unfortunately, also obstruct close inspection of the residential dwellings lining each side. According to a nearby sign, this small plaza is "the finest example of space distribution in Teotihuacán." It includes a central altar with temples on three sides. The largest temple (seen in the background) faces across the altar to the open side and the entrance pathway. This physical arrangement has an architectural history that dates back to the very beginnings of urbanization at Teotihuacán. The approach to the West Plaza would have been along this street, lined on both sides by columns supporting covered terraces and behind them sumptuous residences. The patches of white on either side of the path are the remains of lime-based stucco pavement that once covered the area.


Residential structures line the west side of Plaza B.  Habitations extend north and south of the entrance walkway of the West Plaza. Above is a corridor that runs parallel to Plaza B, and perpendicular to the entrance walkway, connecting the rooms and apartments. Note the remains of the plaster on the walls in the foreground, along with patches of the red paint that once covered them. These were the residences of important individuals and their families.


A priest/noble of Teotihuacán. Archeologists label figures like this "high-status individuals." Their elaborate head dresses and jewelry indicate authority and wealth. Like many pre-hispanic societies, Teotihuacán was a theocracy, run by a priestly ruling class. The power of these people was based in their deep knowledge of the cyclical movements of celestial bodies. They used this knowledge to calculate the change of seasons and to predict the coming of the rains and the correct times for planting and harvesting. The power of prediction provided them with awesome authority, because it positioned them as intermediaries between the common people and the gods. This ensured their wealth and political position. The knowledge that underpinned of all this was closely held within the families of the elite class. They perpetuated their rule by passing it on generationally and by placing restrictions on who had access to the most important rites and ceremonies related to the celestial movements. This was why there were walls surrounding the Pyramid of the Sun and the Citadel.


One of the interior patios contains a household altar. The altar can be seen in the background, between two pillars. Altars like this were used to worship family deities. However, they were also employed for other purposes.


Family altar containing a buried child. The 12 to 14 year old youth was buried in a bent posture within this altar. This was not a sacrifice, but the burial of a family member who died from disease or accident. Burials like this were common practice. It was also common to take the bones of family members and shape them into buttons, combs, spatulas, and many other small tools, all for daily use. Special tools were used to deflesh the relative's body soon after death, before the bones became too brittle. While all this seems macabre and even disrespectful to modern sensibilities, these practices appear to have been a way to maintain a connection with those who had passed into the afterlife.


The West Plaza altar and two of the three temples. The altar is square and uses the talud y tablero style on its sides. The main temple is in the upper right of the photo. The temple on the left is matched by its twin, facing it across the plaza, but out of sight in the photo. The focus of all three temples is the central altar, apparently the site of important ceremonies. However, there is more here than meets the eye. During the early Classic period (150-250 AD), known as the Miccaotli Phase, the plaza's level was several feet lower. Excavations have shown that the stairs of the main temple extend below the current level of the plaza, and the balustrades on either side of the stairs end in dramatic snake heads.


Snake head at the bottom of the left balustrade. Because they were below ground for most of the last 1,800 years, the snake heads have remained remarkably intact.The forked tongue extends down to the original level of the plaza. The plaza's current level is less than 1 m (3 ft) above the snake's head. The features are remarkably sharp and clean and some of the paint which once covered the head can still be seen. It is likely that the eyes were filled with obsidian (volcanic glass) at one time, making them glitter in the sun and in firelight. The stairs themselves were once painted with green circles, outlined in black, over a red background. Such circles are called chachihuites (jewels) and were used to represent water or precious objects such as jade. Archeologists left a hole in the surface of the plaza so that visitors can see the lower level with its snake heads.


Jaguar head on the right side balustrade at the current level of the plaza. This one shows much more wear, due to its long exposure to the elements. This above-ground head used to be that of a snake like the ones that were buried. However, the modification of the plaza during the later Tlalmimilolpa Phase (250-450 AD) included refashioning the snake heads at this level into jaguars. Significantly, the change in the plaza and the snake heads coincided with the building of the Citadel and the radical modification of the Pyramid of the Plumed Serpents. The serpent heads on the pyramid were destroyed or covered over by the addition of the Adosado Platform. Apparently something happened in which serpents were out and jaguars were in. See my posting on the Citadel for more on this.


Elaborate ceramic censer used in elite ceremonies and rituals. A human head, adorned with large ear spools, peers out from the middle. Atop the head is an incredibly elaborate head dress, which includes the beaked heads of birds on either side. I have seen very similar censers in various museums displaying Teotihuacán artifacts. The details differ somewhat, but the general design is the same. Apparently this type of censer was mass produced in pieces which were then assembled. Only the wealthiest and most elite people could afford a censer like this.


The West Plaza's left temple. It is likely that a perishable structure once existed on the temple's top level. Before the plaza was modified and raised, the left and right temples each had three stepped levels. The lowest levels are now below the floor of the plaza. The two levels shown above are in the talud y tablero style. The vertical panels of the tablero contain the remains of a low-relief sculpture of a figure wearing a large head dress containing birds and snakes. The figure, which is duplicated on several of the plaza's temples, carries in its hands budding shoots and flaming bundles. There is some dispute about the identity. Most likely, it is the storm god (Tlaloc) and, also very likely, he was the deity worshipped at the West Plaza.


Beautiful painted pot with tripod feet, reconstructed from fragments. Pots such as this had many functions. One of these was to receive the freshly extracted heart of a sacrifice victim. While human sacrifice at Teotihuacán was not practiced on the industrial scale of the Aztecs, it was not at all uncommon. Human blood was viewed as one of the essential substances of the universe. Presenting a fresh, bloody heart to a deity such as the Storm God was considered be especially pleasing to him.

This concludes my posting. I hope you enjoyed it and found it interesting. If so, please leave any questions or thoughts in the Comments section below, or email me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, please leave your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Mural of a "net-jaguar" consuming a human heart. This mysterious creature gets its name from the net-like lines on its body, which may suggest transparency, even magical invisibility. Net-jaguars are unique to Teotihuacán. Unlike many other aspects of Teotihuacán culture, net-jaguar images were not copied or imitated either by contemporaneous societies or those arising in the centuries following Teotihuacán's fall, like Xochicalco, the Toltecs, or the Aztecs. The net-jaguar above wears a feathered head-dress, indicating an elite status, and has a curving speech-scroll rising from its mouth. This image contains strong military connotations, as do many others in Palacio Atetelco's murals. The creature appears to be eating a human heart from which three drops of blood fall. This symbolism relates to both warrior cults and human sacrifice. Taken altogether, Palacio  Atetelco's murals suggest that it may have been a military academy. The compound is located near Tetitla, seen in the last posting. They both lie just outside the perimeter of the main archeological site of Teotihuacan. For a Google map pinpointing Palacio Atetelco's location, click here.

Overview

The view from above. The various structures of Atetelco are grouped around several courtyards. The Red Courtyard is the largest and can be seen just left of center in photo above. It contains a large altar in its middle. In the upper right corner of the complex is another, smaller courtyard, surrounded on three sides by roofed structures. This one is called the White Courtyard and is the oldest section of the complex. My main focus will be on the structures and murals associated with these two courtyards because they are the most important areas of the complex. (Photo from of INAH, Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History)


Artist's conception of Palacio Atetelco while it was occupied between 250 AD and 650 AD.  The Nahuatl name of the complex means "On the stone wall next to the water." Of course, this was from the language of the Aztecs, who stumbled upon Teotihuacán over 600 years after it was abandoned. We have no idea what Teotihuacanos called this place. In addition to its bright colors, the apartment compound was decorated with the almenas (decorative battlements) you can see along the cornices of the buildings. Just below the almenas are rows of green circles, called chalchihuites. The word means "jewel" and refers to something precious. Teotihuacan is unusual among pre-hispanic civilizations for the 2000+ apartment compounds that made up its urban area. These well-built, and sometimes even luxurious, structures consist of sets of rooms grouped around multiple courtyards, with the whole compound surrounded by a high wall. All the compounds were oriented to the north-south-east-west grid pattern of the city. They were separated from each other by narrow lanes following the same pattern. Construction began shortly after the completion of Teotihuacán's three great pyramids. Most of the compounds were inhabited by multiple families, probably related by kinship. However, compounds like Atetelco appear to have served a purpose different from simple extended-family living space.


The White Courtyard

The White Courtyard, seen from one of the three temples that surround it. The White Courtyard was built approximately 300-400 AD and was the first section of the complex. In the center of the courtyard, you can see a small, square altar. A screen is draped over the front of the temple on the far side of the courtyard, in order to protect the wall murals on the inside.


 An anthropomorphic eagle, dressed as a warrior carrying an atlatl (spearthrower). This is a reproduction, based on fragments found on the temple wall. The fragments are indicated by the irregularly shaped areas enclosed in black lines with numbers in them. Apparently, and eagle was the totem of one of the warrior societies based at Atetelco. The bird is a powerful predator and was much admired by warriors. The atlatl is a weapon which long pre-dates the development of the bow and arrow. It consists of a short stick with a hook on one end where the butt of a spear or dart is placed. The effect of the atlatl is to increase the leverage of the arm and to give much greater force and distance when throwing. Properly used, an atlatl can project a dart at speeds over 150 km/h (93 mph) to a distance of over 100 m (328 ft). These devices have been used since the Early Paleolithic Era (30,000 years ago). In fact, anyone visiting a modern city park may see people using a plastic version of the atlatl to throw tennis balls to their dogs. The projectile is different, but the principle is exactly the same.


Coyotes march along the base of a wall. The coyote was the totem of another important military society. The feathered head dresses again indicate an elite unit. More feathers line their spines and the backs of their legs and tails. Speech scrolls rise from their mouths, possibly indicating a warrior chant. Another interesting detail is the circular emblem with three diagonal lines that each coyote wears on his side. Similar emblems appear in the border area around the animals. These are called chimalli in Nahuatl, and they carry symbolic meanings not unlike coats-of-arms on medieval battle shields. Further military symbolism can be seen in the line of projectile points leading from left to right between the emblems.


A human warrior/priest wears an eagle-crested head dress. On his back he carries a round shield decorated with a chimalli. The feathered ends of a quiver of arrows protrudes from behind the shield. This image may approximate the actual appearance of Teotihuacán's elite Eagle Warriors. Once again, a speech scroll indicates a chant or prayer. The warrior/priest is surrounded by a border that is part of a pattern extending across the wall, somewhat resembling a chain-link fence. A similar figure appears in each of the openings in the "fence".


This mural fragment may be about a deformed god. The figure's body is covered with sores and his limbs are disproportionate to the rest of his body, indicating deformity. People with such deformities were not shunned in pre-hispanic societies. Instead, they were honored as people possessing special powers. The Aztecs adopted a great deal of their culture and religion from Teotihuacán. The god shown above appears to be a predecessor of the Aztec deity Nanahuatzin (Nahuatl for "Filled with Sores"). He was a deformed and sickly god who courageously sacrificed himself in order to create the sun of the Fifth World--the era when humanity appeared. The placement of this mural at a military school is significant because courage and sacrifice were key elements of the military ethos of Teotihuacán (as well as that of every other military organization in history).


Carole walks toward the passage from the White to the Red Courtyard. The opening is small, formed by the corners of two of the four temples that surround the Red Courtyard.


The Red Courtyard


The Red Courtyard was built in a later period than the White Courtyard. Archeologists estimate that this area was constructed around 450 AD and continued in use until 650 AD. It is also much more spacious than the White Courtyard and contains a large altar in its center that mimics temple architecture. If Palacio Atetelco was a military school, this would have been the place to assemble and review cadets and to conduct military-related ceremonies.


The altar in the center of the Red Courtyard models the style of a temple. Whether it was used architecturally as an actual model is unknown. Each of the three stepped levels displays the ubiquitous talud y tablero style. The edges of the level on which the miniature temple sits are lined with almenas in the shape of stepped temples. When the Red Court was excavated, a statue of Huehueteotl  ("Old, Old God") was found just outside of the little temple on top. He was the Fire God worshiped throughout Mesoamerica from the earliest times. In fact, he may be the most ancient god of the entire pantheon. In the lower right corner of the photo is a small depression filled with water. There is an identical depression on the opposite side of the altar. The purpose of these was not clear, but they could be fire pits used to light the altar for nighttime rituals.


One of the four temples that face onto the Red Courtyard. The temples are almost identical. They are each entered through a short but broad staircase and each has two pillars at its entrance to help support a flat roof (now gone). At one time, the walls of the insides these temples were covered with murals showing spear-carrying warriors and other martial themes.



Another possible fire pit is located in the corner of one of the temples. There was another pit in the corner behind me when I took the shot. The floor of the temple was once covered by a layer of limestone stucco and you can see the remains of it around the fire pit. The stucco was created by burning limestone, a process that necessitated large quantities of firewood. The use of stucco on pyramids, temples, and apartment compounds resulted in large scale deforestation around Teotihuacán. According to some theories, the deforestation caused increasing aridity in the local climate which, in turn, resulted in repeated crop failures. This would have discredited the priestly elite, whose job it was to intercede with the gods (primarily Tlaloc, the Rain God) to ensure adequate precipitation and good harvests. Their failure may have led to a revolt that overthrew the city's elite around 650 AD. Lending credence to this theory is the fact that only the elite areas were sacked and burned at that time. Conquest by a rival city, or invasion by Chichimec barbarians from the north, would have resulted in a general conflagration. Instead, the areas of the common people remained untouched and they continued to live in the undestroyed remainder of Teotihuacán for another hundred years. However, the city's population gradually diminished and by 750 AD Teotihuacán was empty and overgrown.



Maya influences at Atetelco

Maya glyphs from the walls of one of Atetelco's Red Couryard temples.  The white glyphs are painted on red specular hematite (iron oxide with sparkling flecks of mica), over a layer of lime plaster stucco. The glyphs have been interpreted as the Maya word puh, which means place of reeds or rushes. This is a common metaphor for the concept of people united in civilization, or "city". Teotihuacán had strong trading links with the Classic-Era Maya cities within Yucatan and Chiapas, as well as those in Guatemala such as Tikal, and in Honduras like Copán. In addition, there was a large Maya district within Teotihuacán itself.


The design of this pot shows additional evidence of Maya influence. The beautiful container has designs incised in the Maya style on its sides and skulls around its base. The pot may have arrived through the trade networks or could have been created by a  craftsman residing within Teotihuacán's Maya district. Since the distance separating the city from the Maya areas is long, and the pot seems relatively heavy (and fragile), I would bet on a local origin.


Residential/Administrative area

A complex of rooms fills the area of compound outside of the two courtyards. There are additional small patios associated with some of the rooms. The exact function of these spaces is unclear. Some were probably residences for military officials of the academy. Others may have been barracks for the cadets. Still others probably served administrative or storage purposes.


Obsidian spear points and arrowhead. These are typical of the "business end" of the weapons used by the warriors trained at Atetelco. The mining of obsidian (volcanic glass) and the manufacture of valuable objects from it was central to Teotihuacán's economy. Obsidian was obtained primarily from deposits near Pachuca, about 49 km (30 mi) northeast of Teotihuacan. Various objects were manufactured from obsidian "cores" about the size of a modern football. These items included edged weapons and tools, but also figurines, jewelry and other luxury goods. All were very valuable as trade items because of their beauty, usefulness, and particularly their light weight. A Mesoamerican city's control over large obsidian deposits would be equivalent to a modern nation's control over substantial oil fields. Wars have been fought over control of both forms of mineral wealth.

At Palacio Atetelco, an elite warrior class received the training that underpinned Teotihuacán's military might. It was this military capacity that kept the Chichimec raiders at bay, protected the empire's trade routes from civilized competitors, ensured access to vital resources like the obsidian of Pachuca, and even waged long-range campaigns to install Teotihuacán rulers in remote places like the Maya city of Tikal in Guatemala's Petén jungle.

This completes my posting on Palacio Atetelco. I hope you enjoyed it. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below, or email them to me directly. If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

A chanting Priest sows seeds as a fertility offering. Palacio Tepantitla is another example of the 2000+ apartment compounds that once made up Teotihuacán's urban area. Only a handful of these compounds have been excavated so far. Tepantitla was first occupied during the Tlamimilolpa Phase (225-350 AD) and continued in use through the Metepec Phase (550-650 AD). Most of Teotihuacán's compounds were multi-family living units, but Tepantitla, like Palacio Atetelco (see last posting), appears to have had a special function. While Atetelco's murals suggest that it was a military academy, the murals at Tepantitla abound with priests and gods engaged in peaceful activities related to water and agricultural fertility. This suggests that it was an abode for members of the priestly elite. Tepantitla is located outside the perimeter of the main ruins at Teotihuacán. However, unlike Tetitla and Atetelco (and two others we didn't visit), it is northeast of the main ruins, rather than to the southwest. To find Teptantitla on a Google map, click here.

Overview

Design of Palacio Tepantitla. The large area marked with an X is the main courtyard. It appears to be larger than the courtyards of either Tetitla or Atetelco. The schematic above shows a broad, 5-step staircase along the eastern side of the courtyard. The stairs lead up to a rectangular-shaped platform that once contained a temple. Surrounding these two open areas are a number of spacious apartments, within which Tepantitla's murals are located. The two rooms directly facing the main courtyard on the north and south are similar in size and shape and are considerably larger than any of the others in the living areas. This suggests that they may have had special functions, possibly related to the main courtyard.


This sunken area is the main courtyard. It lies two steps below the rest of the platform on which the overall compound is built.Carole is sitting on one of these steps in the upper right. In the upper left, you can see the entrance to the large room on the south side of the courtyard. The small, covered structure in the top center is roofed with modern corrugated materials to protect its murals. Many of the other rooms have similar coverings since none of Tepantitla's original roofs have survived. I found it curious that the courtyard lacks a central altar, unlike most of the main courtyards of other apartment compounds. Perhaps this area's main use was for communal activities by those living in the adjacent apartments. The steps to the temple platform can be seen in the center left.

Room of the Marching Priests

A line of the Sower-Priests marches along the lower walls. The figures are quite similar, if not identical, and all appear to be marching in the same direction. Each group of priests is framed by a band that rises from the corner and runs along over their heads. Archeologists have noted that no human individuals (as opposed to gods) are highlighted or glorified in Teotihuacán's murals. This suggests a collective leadership, unlike the kingships found almost everywhere else in Mesoamerica. It is unclear how this collective leadership might have functioned. However, but it might have vaguely resembled the Senate of the early Roman Republic, which was a collective leadership composed of representatives of wealthy and powerful families. In addition to the absence of glorified individuals in the murals, there are no stone stelae, listing accessions by individual rulers, or their victories and conquests. Of the three great pyramids at Teotihuacán, all appear to be dedicated to gods, not individual human rulers. Although tunnels have been discovered under all three, no royal tombs have yet been found.


A Sower-Priest in full regalia. The mural depicts a ritual offering during a ceremony aimed at ensuring a good crop. The priest wears the head and upper jaw of a crocodile, decorated with a plume of feathers. Crocodiles, in Mesoamerica, were associated with fertility and the arrival of rains. The priest's face is striped with horizontal bands of dark paint and he wears an elaborate costume that extends to his knees. In one of his hands, he holds a small satchel, marking him as a priest. The satchel probably contains copal incense. With the other hand, the priest sows seeds, another reference to fertility. A speech scroll extends in front of him but, unlike scrolls in other murals, this one emerges from his hand, not his mouth. The placement may relate to the seeds or the action of sowing, particularly since plants appear to be growing from the sides of the scroll and maiz (corn) and flowers can be seen within it.


Corner of the Room of the Marching Priests. The bands which frame the murals contain writhing Plumed Serpents. The head and twisting body of one serpent can be seen on the right, facing down. Water rushes from its mouth, further emphasizing the theme of fertility. The rattles within the band on the left identify the serpent as a rattlesnake. According to pre-hispanic myths, the Plumed Serpent (whom the Aztecs called Quetzalcoatl) gave the gift of maiz to humans and taught them how to cultivate and process it.

Mural of the Water Mountain

Mural of a mountain, gushing with water that is filled with swimmers. The mountain is surrounded by dancers and frolicking people. Archeologists have long debated the meaning of this mural. Initially, it was interpreted as Tlalocan, one of the 13 levels of heaven, ruled by Tlaloc, the Rain God. Tlalocan was a place of abundant water and never-ending springtime. The images seemed to fit Aztec beliefs about Tlaloc, but they arrived on the scene many centuries after Teotihuacán was abandoned. Many archeologists now believe that, rather than Tlalocan, this image represents Cerro Gordo, the extinct volcano that rises to the north of Teotihuacán, behind the Pyramid of the Moon. The mountain was revered by the Teotihuacanos as the source of their city's water. Current opinion now holds that the mural depicts Cerro Gordo as the sacred "Water Mountain", associated with the Great Goddess--Teotihuacán's chief deity--rather than Tlaloc.


Partying beside the Water Mountain. The mural contains scores of figures, not only in the water but on either side of the Water Mountain. Mixed in among them are flowering plants, butterflies and other creatures. A line of dancers can be seen in the upper center. Speech scrolls rise up from their mouths, indicating a song or chant. Each figure's left hand extends behind him between his legs and is grasped by the left hand of the following figure. Others dance individually or lie back languidly with their arms stretched out behind them. In the lower left, a man appears to towel himself off, with water dripping from his cloth. The overall impression is that there's one hell of a "pool party" going on.


Three figures feast on the fruit of a bush. Two of them reach out to grab the fruit, while the third bites it off directly from the bush. The scene is one of lushness and plenty.


Celebrating a good harvest. The men in this mural sing while marching along carrying poles on their shoulders. These may be agricultural implements. In some of the small fields near where I live, maiz is still planted by farmers using poles like this. One man looks back, with his speech scroll extending behind him. The other singing figure looks skyward and reaches his left hand upward in a gesture of joy. Below these two is a fragment of another singer, also with his head and hand raised. In this case, the hand holds an object that may be an offering.


Still more figures cavort and play. On the left, a group of men grasp the arms and legs of another man, preparing to playfully toss him in the air. Near them, a man trudges along, again with a speech scroll rising above his open mouth. Over his shoulder he carries a rolled up cloth (a beach towel?) with designs on it. Another dancer waves leafy branches. Oddly, I was unable to locate any women among the figures on the Water Mountain mural, although it is possible that some may have appeared in the missing sections. Also interesting is that these men do not appear to be priests, nobles, or members of the elite class. They are dressed as common folk and none are shown in the formal and rigid postures you find in elite depictions at Teotihuacán. The Water Mountain figures are in lively motion and the overall scene is one of joyful chaos.


The Great Goddess, Teotihuacán's chief deity, appears above the Water Mountain mural. This image is fragmentary, but you can see her huge feathered head dress with a bird head in the middle. She wears a dress adorned with floral symbols and her arms and wrists are circled with jade bracelets. As in other depictions of the Great Goddess, her arms are extended and water drips from her hands. Complete images of the Great Goddess (also known as the Jade Goddess) can be seen in my posting on Palacio Tetitla.


The Tlaloc Murals

The Rain God, later called Tlaloc by the Aztecs. On the left is the Rain God's face, wearing "goggles" around his eyes. Three arms can be seen to the right of the face, each holding vessels from which water gushes. Along the bottom is a rippled band representing a body of water. Within the band are a series of five-pointed stars which symbolize Venus. Venus is closely associated with the Rain God and fertility. It is the Evening Star which is reborn as the Morning Star each day. To pre-hispanic people, this represented the cyclical nature of the seasons and of death and rebirth. Along the top is a row of conch shell symbols, another aquatic theme. This mural is actually on the vertical part of a door frame, with the face at the bottom. I turned the photo so that you can better appreciate it.


The Red Tlalocs exhibit the fearsome side of the Rain God. The Red Tlalocs are part of a series that once decorated the whole wall of this room. Above the Tlalocs is a recurring series of single dots and double dashes. One interpretation is that the dots are circles representing chalchihuites (jewels). However, the numeric system used in pre-hispanic times gave values to dots and dashes: a dot equalled 1 and a dash equalled 5. If the symbols are numeric, it would show a series of elevens along the border of the mural. It is not clear which interpretation might be correct.


Artist's interpretation of the Red Tlalocs. Here you can see the images more clearly. The Rain God wears his typical goggles. Other typical features are a set of fangs and a drooping, forked tongue. His head dress contains obsidian knives and he carries an arrow bundle under his arm. These objects emphasize Tlaloc's scary aspects, expressed as thunder, lightning, terrible storms, and floods. Like many other gods, the Rain God could be fearsome as well as benevolent. He therefore required careful handling and regular propitiation through sacrifices, sometimes of the human variety.


Mural of the Red Shields

Despite its war-like name, the Mural of the Red Shields may not have a military meaning. The image gained its name from its resemblance to a chimali, or Aztec war shield. However, Teotihuacán war shields were square or rectangular, not round, so it is possible that the image has some other meaning besides a military one. If it does represent a warrior's shield, it may reflect the multi-cultural nature of Teotihuacán, which people from the Maya areas, the Zapotec kingdom of Monte Alban, as well as other parts of Mesoamerica.


Artist's rendering of the Red Shields. The central glyphs are surrounded by a band showing bird feathers. Inside the band is a glyph meaning Ojo de Reptil or "Reptile's Eye". It is possible that the combination of the reptile and feathers refers to the Plumed Serpent. The Ojo de Reptil glyph also appears on a stela at Xochicalco in the middle of a plaza that forms the entrance to that city. Archeologists believe that Xochicalco was founded by refugees from the collapse of Teotihuacán in 650 AD. Like Teotihuacan, images and references to the Plumed Serpent appear throughout Xochicalco.


Mural of the Four Petal Flowers

The image of a four-petal flower is ubiquitous at Teotihuacán. The sacred tunnel under the Pyramid of the Sun ends in chambers shaped like a four-petal flower. Four-petal flowers also appear in relief carvings on the columns at the Palace of Quetzalpapalotl, near the Pyramid of the Moon. There are many more examples to be found throughout the city. The four-petal flower symbolized the earth, with its four sacred directions. The designers of Teotihuacán divided the city into four quadrants, separated from north to south by the Avenue of the Dead. Another east to west avenue crossed the Avenue of the Dead perpendicularly at the Citadel. All this represented a conscious and deliberate attempt to build a city that imitated the cosmos with Teotihuacán at the center of the "four-petal" earth.

This completes my posting on Palacio Tepantitla. I hope you enjoyed the murals of this extraordinary compound. If you have any comments or questions, please leave them in the Comments section below, or email me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Almena showing a bird with water pouring from its beak. The image of a creature from the natural world with water pouring from its mouths is a recurrent theme at Teotihuacán. Architectural features like this decorated the rooflines of palaces and other structures. The city was full of skilled artisans who crafted almenas, as well as a wide variety of other products. Some of the craftsmen were Teotihuacanos, but others came from regions throughout Mesoamerica. Their often eclectic styles reflected the cosmopolitan nature of Teotihuacán.

I will illustrate this last posting of my Teotihuacán series with photos showing the work of some of those ancient artisans. All of these pieces can be found at the archeological site's two museums.


Small seated figure shows the skill of Teotihuacán sculptors. The natural posture and the overall delicacy of this piece makes it my favorite.


Censer with the "goggle eyes" that reveal its connection with Tlaloc, the rain god. Censers were devices for burning incense, usually copal, and were closely associated both with the altars found both in public spaces and private homes.


Dressed in high-status regalia, a vigorous young male strides along. He wears a headband, large ear spools and a multi-strand jade necklace. The youth is bare-chested and his skirt-like garment is supported by an elaborate belt with an emblem in the center that bears a startling resemblance to a swastika. The emblem did not then possess the evil association it gained from modern Nazism. Instead, it is probably related to the four-petal flower, a symbol representing the four cardinal directions, another recurrent image at Teotihuacán.


Clay masks and other artifacts were often produced using pottery molds. This allowed mass production and a degree of standardization and quality control. The materials used came both from the local area and through the trade networks.


A female figure shows the influence of western Mexico's Teuchitlán culture. She wears a modest head dress, ear spools, a necklace, and a loincloth. The bumps on her shoulders and upper arms are for personal decoration. In order to create this effect, people inserted smooth stones under the skin. This feature shows up in many Teuchitlán Culture sculptures. The presence of this artifact at Teotihuacán indicates a trade link with the Teuchitlán Culture and raises the possibility that people from western Mexico may have been part of Teotihuacán's multi-cultural population.


Ceramic bowl showing Gulf Coast influence. The bowl was found at El Tajin, located in Vera Cruz State near the Gulf Coast. It was the ancient capital of the Totonacs. The shape of the bowl and its tri-pod feet are in the Teotihuacán style, but the scroll-and-hook design on the side of the bowl comes from the Totonacan culture.



Individuals of high social status often wore elaborate head dresses and clothing. Many small figures like this have been unearthed at Teotihuacán. The markings on the clothing indicate that it may once have been painted. High-status individuals would have included priests, nobles, and military leaders.



The lid and base of this graceful tri-pod pot are decorated with cacao beans.Cacao beans were used to make chocolate, a sacred drink reserved for the elite. In addition, dried cacao beans were often used as currency.


A figure, possibly an athlete or a soldier, prepares to throw something. The lack of any shield, armor, or other martial regalia suggests an athlete to me. He may be demonstrating his prowess with a spear.


Cacao fruit and a maiz cob. Maiz (corn) was the staff of life for all civilizations of Mesoamerica and was raised in a wide variety of climates and topographies. The earliest maiz cobs yet found were located in a cave in Oaxaca and date back more than 6,000 years.  Cacao is a hot-country plant, grown mostly in humid lowland areas. The earliest evidence of the consumption of cacao was found in pottery excavated from Maya sites in Honduras dating back to 1500 BC.


Articulated figure used in burial ceremonies. The otherwise-nude figure wears ear spools, a necklace, and bracelets, all representing jade jewelry. The arms and legs are attached in a way that they can be moved. Some figures like this have removable head dresses and jewelry.


A selection of razor-sharp obsidian blades. These are not weapons, but tools used for fine work. Obsidian can be made sharper than a modern surgical scalpel. The mining of raw obsidian cores, as well as the production of finished products like those above, was a major industry at Teotihuacán.


Two great lords and a priest. The elaborate dress of the two standing figures indicates that they are great lords. The one on the left is a warrior who carries a shield decorated with feathers. In the foreground, a man sits beside a woman giving birth. The basket with the handle indicates he is a priest or shaman. This is the only Teotihuacán representation of child-birth that I have ever seen.


Two household bowls and a human bone made into a tool. The bowls are nicely made but show no decoration so they may have been mass-produced for use by commoners. One end of the bone has a drilled hole which indicates it may have been used as a tool. Teotihuacanosused the bones of deceased family members to create household tools and other personal items. This may have been a way of keeping a close connection with relatives who had passed into the Underworld.


"Host"figure with a removable plate which reveals another figure inside. These figures were used for ritual purposes and offerings may have been placed inside them. The face is painted with bright red specular hematite and there are traces of paint on other parts of the body. The hidden figure in the door of the host is believed represent the divine essence residing within each person.


Pot in the form of a grinning feline. Found in a burial, this fine example of Teotihuacán pottery shows the importance placed on felines. They appear in wide variety of murals, sculptures, pottery, and jewelry. The appearance of feline images among grave goods further emphasizes their cultural importance.


Stone sculpture of a human head and torso. The piece has classically Teotihuacán features, with narrow eyes, a broad face, and parted lips. I particularly like the vertical striations of the rock, which heighten the beauty of the sculpture.


Long necklace made from shells with coral pendants. All these materials came from either the Atlantic or Pacific coasts of Mesoamerica. Its location in the center of Mesoamerica enabled Teotihuacán to become the hub of a great trade network.

This is one of several whimsical sculptures in Plaza de la Constitución.  After our visit to the ancient ruins of Teotihuacán, we headed to Tlaxcala de Xicoténcatl, the capital of the State of Tlaxcala. It is the smallest of Mexico's 31 states, covering an area of only 4016 sq km (1551 sq mi). Its population of 1,272,847 makes it one Mexico's smallest states, ranking 28th of 31. The city of Tlaxcala is also relatively small, containing less than 90,000 inhabitants within its municipio (equivalent to a US county). For a Google map of the state of Tlaxcala, click here.

For centuries prior to the arrival of the Spanish, Tlaxcalans had been fierce enemies of the Aztecs. During the Conquest, they became important allies of Hernán Cortéz and his Conquistadores. As a result, the Tlaxcalans were able to maintain their autonomy for a considerable portion of the colonial era. This early alliance enabled Spanish friars to evangelize and conduct mass baptisms here even before the final defeat of the Aztecs in 1521. As a result, some of the churches and other colonial-era structures in the city of Tlaxcala are among the oldest in Mexico. In this first posting of my series, we'll start with Plaza de la Constitución, which is surrounded by many beautifully restored colonial-era buildings.


Plaza de la Constitución

A beautiful ochavada fountain provides a cool space for plaza visitors to linger."Ochavada" refers to the octagon shape of the fountain. Named La Fuente de Santa Cruz, it was a gift to the city from Spain's King Philip IV in 1646. The plaza itself was laid out in 1524, as the first step to building the town. The Aztecs had been defeated only two years previously, making this one of the first Spanish plazas in the continental Americas. The measurements of the plaza follow the standard set for plazas in medieval Spain. The original name of the square was Plaza de Armas (Plaza of Guns, i.e. the parade ground).  In 1813, the name was changed to Plaza de la Constitución in honor of the Constitution of Cadiz, a document drawn up by Spanish reformers as part of their resistance to the French occupation of Spain during the Napoleonic Wars. For a Google map of the Plaza and surrounding area, click here.


Ornate cast-iron benches line the shady walkways of the plaza. The kiosco (bandstand) in the background was a gift from President Porfirio Diaz, who ruled Mexico with an iron hand between 1876 and 1911. During the Porfiriato, as this period was called, French styles of architecture were copied throughout Mexico. The kiosco and the park benches followed this pattern.

Agapanthus, a member of the Amaryllis family. Lush gardens grow around the fountain and kiosco, and under the shade of the plaza's trees. Agapanthus is not native to Mexico, but originates from South Africa. (Photo i.d. courtesy of my friend Ron Parsons, who publishes Wild Flowers and Plants of Central Mexico).


A young woman cleans the walkways. The plaza was immaculate, as was true of the rest of Tlaxcala. Mexicans take great pride in their plazas. Usually, even the poorest pueblos keep them carefully swept and free of trash. Notice the old-style broom. It consists of twigs and small branches bunched together and attached with twine to a pole. This inexpensive method, using locally obtained natural products, creates a remarkably effective tool for cleaning large areas.


Portales de Hidalgo

View of the Portal Hidalgo from Plaza de la Constitución. The whole east side of the plaza is occupied by a long arcade with arched portales separating it from the street. The arcade shelters a string of sidewalk restaurants where we ate many of our meals. There are also a variety of stores, as well as the offices of the city government. In the foreground, a shoeshine man prepares his stand for business. A good shoeshine can nearly always be obtained in a Mexican plaza. In 1549, the city council of Tlaxcala hired 300 workers to build nine stores along this side of the plaza. The move was inspired by Corregidor (chief magistrate) Don Diego Ramirez. In 1550, the completed stores were rented to merchants so that they could sell the wares they imported from Spain and the Philippines. The city council then used the income from the rentals to pay city government workers.


View of the Portal Hidalgo from the southeast corner of the plaza. The portales face directly west and several of the restaurants have pulled down shades to shield diners from the afternoon sun. In 1687, without bothering to consult with the city council, Tlaxcala's Spanish governor Francisco Antonio Picazo sold the stores to a royal notary (a high-level Spanish lawyer). The sign at the Portal Hidalgo doesn't say, but it would not surprise me in the least if there was a family connection between the two. That's the way things were done in those days (and often in modern times too).


One of the Portal Hidalgo's many restaurants. Some are full-service, while others specialize in coffee, pastries, or ice cream. The prices are reasonable and the food is good. The Portal has been modified numerous times over the centuries. The original pillars were made of wood set in stone bases. Those were replaced in the 17th century by the current pillars. The original name of the arcade was Portal de Parian, but it was changed after 1821 to honor Father Miguel Hidalgo, hero of the War of Independence.


This sidewalk buffet specializes in local dishes.  Further down the arcade is the main office of the city government. The stone walkway has been worn smooth by the feet of centuries of shoppers.


Three young women enjoy a quiet meal above the arcade. Many of the restaurants along the arcade also have space on the second floor. Windows with wrought-iron balconies line the front of the upper floor, forming a excellent places for tables overlooking the plaza.


Palacio Gobierno

Palacio Gobierno is the seat of the state government of Tlaxcala. The Palacio occupies the whole northern side of the Plaza de la Constitución. The area along its front is for pedestrians only. The building dates to 1545, but has been modified numerous times since then. Originally it was the local headquarters of the Spanish colonial government. The original building had three sections. On the west end (left side) was the alhóndiga, a public granary. The center section was occupied by the Casas de Consistorial  (council hall and mayor's office). The east end (right side) consisted of apartments set aside for the Viceroy when he passed through the area. Today, the walls of the east end are filled with stunning murals detailing the history of Tlaxcala from Paleolithic times to the modern day. I will do a separate posting on the murals later in this series.


East corner of the Palacio. The white plaster decorations are in French Rococo style and were added in 1929. The interesting zig-zag pattern of brickwork is replicated in several other structures in Tlaxcala, including the Parroquia San José.


The Casas de Consistorial entrance was built in the Plateresque style.Plateresque means "in the manner of a silversmith". The style appeared in 15th century Spain during the late Gothic and early Renaissance periods. The three upper arches also show some Moorish influence.


Demonstration in front of the Palacio. During our visit there seemed to be a non-stop rally going on here. Some folks even put up tents and spent the night in front of the Palacio. It appeared to be about education reform, although I was never quite clear on the specifics. As a former union and community organizer, I always appreciate the level of activism in Mexico's civil society. Everywhere I go, I run into this sort of thing. It speaks well of democracy in Mexico that so many ordinary people get out and make their voices heard.

Parroquia San José

The 18th century Baroque exterior of Parroquia San José is a fine example of that style. The original name of the church was Parroquia San Juan y José. At one time it was a cathedral (administrative seat of a diocese). However, the Spanish founded the city of Puebla in 1532 and it soon grew to a level of such importance that the cathedral was shifted there. Parroquia San José, which sits on the northwest corner of the Plaza, was built on the site of a 16th century hermitage. In 1864, an earthquake demolished the dome and vault. When they were reconstructed, a beautiful tile covering was added. In a future posting, I will take a closer look at the church and its interior decorations.


Church fountain, looking east. Colonial fountains are lovely, but they once served a very practical function. Almost no colonial structures had internal running water, so fountains became the prime source for public water. They served the human inhabitants, as well as horses and other animals. The red brick building in the upper left is the west side of the Palacio Gobierno, which once contained the alhóndiga.


Capilla Real de Indias

The Capilla Real de Indias was built between 1659 and 1688. The Royal Chapel of the Indians was intended as a place for the indigenous people to worship, to keep them separate from the Spaniards. The builders used a system of state-controlled forced labor of native people to construct it. Church and civil authorities of the colonial society were apparently oblivious to the irony, given the purpose of the structure.


Baroque pilasters frame the main entrance. The title of Royal Chapel was granted by Spanish King Carlos III in 1770. In honor of his decree, the town council placed a life-sized stone statue of King Carlos in the atrium. It was adorned with military insignia, although Carlos had little or no military experience, seldom wore uniforms, and could barely be persuaded to witness a military review. However, he was a reformer who was strongly influenced by the Enlightenment. Historians view King Carlos III as one of the best European rulers of his era. His statue now resides in Tlaxcala's Regional Museum.


One of two plaques on the Capilla's exterior displaying the Hapsburg Royal coat-of-arms. The plaques were carved from volcanic stone. They represent the Hapsburg dynasty which ruled colonial Nueva España (New Spain) from the time of the Conquest until 1700. The plaques may have been part of an earlier structure that was replaced by the Capilla. At the end of the 18th century, a fire destroyed the nave. Much of the rest of the church collapsed in a later earthquake. The ruins were abandoned until 1984, when the structure was restored, but for another purpose.


The atrium of the Capilla contains two quotes from Benito Juarez. The building is no longer a church, but now houses Tlaxcala's state judicial branch. Benito Juarez was the Chief Justice of the Mexican Supreme Court during the mid-19th century. The upper quote means "The nation comes first" while the lower says "Peace is respect for the rights of others." Juarez, a full-blooded Zapotec Indian, is one of the most honored and respected figures in Mexico's history. It would be another 150 years before the US elected a person of color as president.


Oficina de Turismo

The offices of the Secretary of Tourism formerly housed the State Legislature. This attractive corner building is one block north of the Plaza, just behind the Palacio Gobierno. Tourist offices are always among my first stops when I visit a new place. They can often provide excellent maps and other brochures, usually free of charge. The building was constructed in Neo-Classical style under the direction of Governor Prospero Cahuantzi at the end of the 19th century. It was inaugurated in 1901 and in use until 1987.


A grand staircase leads to a landing with an impressive statue. The dome at the top of the stairs was done in French Nouveau style. Since 1987, the building has been occupied by the Tlaxcala State Secretary of Tourism.


Bronze statue of Benito Juarez, pointing to his famous Reform Laws. Juarez became President of Mexico after his stint as Chief Justice. He led the effort to reform Mexico's Constitution and its society. One of his chief objectives was to curb the economic and political power of the Church which, at the time, controlled as much as 40% of Mexico's arable land. Juarez' reforms led to a revolt by conservatives and Church leaders. After they lost the Reform War (1858-1860), the conservatives urged France to invade Mexico and install a monarchy. As President, Juarez led the successful resistance to the French occupation (1862-1867). Abraham Lincoln and Juarez, who were contemporaries, admired and respected each other greatly.


Touribus waits for customers. These buses give guided tours around the city, visiting spectacular churches and lookout points with grand vistas. They are a fun and inexpensive way to get an overview of the available sights.

This concludes Part 1 of my Tlaxcala series. I hope you have enjoyed it and, if so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below. If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

A king dances on a massive retablo in the main nave. He was one of a row of four royal figures, all in similar poses. Close examination has convinced me that he is San Luis, also known as King Louis IX of France. He was a monarch of the Middle Ages who was known for justice, compassion and piety. Louis IX was one of the few rulers ever elevated to sainthood. I have been unable to discover the identities of the other royals, or why all of them appear to be dancing. Parroquia San José is located in the northwest corner of Plaza de la Constitution. The puzzle of the dancing kings is not the only thing that has baffled me about this church. There is a dearth of information about its history, construction and decor. In this posting, I'll provide you with the bits and pieces I have managed to unearth.


Exterior

The church exterior glows warmly in the afternoon sun. Beginning in the 16th century, a religious hermitage dedicated to San Juan and San José occupied this site. Either in the late 17th or early 18th centuries (depending upon your source) the hermitage was demolished and replaced by the Parroquia(parish church). The new church was dedicated solely to San José (Jesus' father). Construction on various parts of the structure continued into the 19th century, particularly after an earthquake destroyed the roof and one of the domes in 1864.

More recently, on September 20, 2017, Parroquia San José was severely damaged when another earthquake shook central Mexico. This 7.1 temblor left cracks in the facade, tower, and domes, raising fears that the whole structure might collapse. The photo above was taken prior to this disaster. To see a video of the quake rocking the church, click here. In the audio a voice keeps saying "tranquilo, tranquilo" (calm down, calm down) to pedestrians who were weeping as they viewed the destruction.


The domes of the Parroquia are beautifully decorated with talavera tile. This was added during reconstruction after the 1864 quake. Talavera tile originated during the Moorish occupation of Spain (711 AD - 1492 AD). Like many other Moorish styles, the tin-glazed, earthenware was copied by the Christian Spaniards. Production of the earthenware gradually became centered in the town of Talavera de la Reina, hence the name. After the discovery of the New World, Spain exported both the tiles themselves and their method of manufacture. In Nueva España (colonial Mexico) the city of Puebla became the center of talavera production. Since Puebla is located a relatively short distance south of Tlaxcala, it is not surprising that the tiles would be used in rebuilding the Parroquia.


The facade is in the Late Baroque style known as Churrigueresque. This can be seen in the windows, the eight columns, and the statuary, all made of white plaster. The top four columns display the spiraling style called Solomonic, which is a characteristic element of Churrigueresque. Between those columns, in front of the choir window, stands a statue of San José, the Parroquia's namesake.

Main nave

The style of the main nave is Neo-Classic, with elements of Baroque. A number of Baroque retablos line the walls. They are intricately carved, covered with gold leaf, and have niches for statues and paintings. 19th century Chilean artist Manuel Antonio Caro painted several of the large works that hang on the walls. One of those paintings shows the baptism of the four indigenous lords of Tlaxcala in 1520, an event that occurred early in the Conquest, even before the final defeat of the Aztecs.


Greco-Roman columns frame the main altar, which is entirely Neo-Classic. A statue of San José stands in the center niche, with the boy Jesus by his side. What distinguishes Neo-Classic from Baroque is its straight lines and clean appearance with some spaces left without decoration. Baroque (and particularly Churrigueresque) tends to fill up every inch. Typical Neo-Classic features include Greco-Roman columns, usually with Corinthian capitals on their tops, as seen above. The main altar contains twelve of these columns, with eight on the lower level and four on the top.


The dome over the main altar is beautifully crafted, but in need of repair.Salitre is a mineral which leaches into plaster and cement, causing bubbling and flaking. This problem has afflicted Mexican structures from colonial times to the present. The arches surrounding the base of the dome show the intricate floral decorations that are typically Baroque.


The choir loft is on a raised platform over the entrance to the main nave. The ceiling here shows more salitre damage. A choir loft usually contains the church organ, but none is visible in this photo. Typical of most Catholic churches, this choir loft is placed behind and above the congregation, which is seated in the pews below. This is done to avoid distraction from the Mass, which is conducted at the main altar at the other end of the church.


A holy water font near the church entrance contains a startling image. The face carved into the pedestal is that of Camaxtli, war god of the Tlaxcalans. Although it is not unusual to find pre-hispanic religious symbols in colonial churches, they are rarely placed in such a prominent spot. However, as the most important of the Conquistadors' early allies, the Tlaxcalans held a special position. Tlaxcala maintained some degree of political autonomy until the end of the colonial period. The font on the opposite side of the entrance area contains the coat-of-arms of the Spanish Hapsburg Dynasty, a reminder to Tlaxcalans that they were still subject to Nueva España's ultimate authority.


Capilla de la Virgen de Guadalupe

The most important side-chapel is devoted to the Virgin of Guadalupe. The chapel's style is wholly Churrigueresque, which I call "Baroque on steroids". It is staggeringly ornate and contains many entertaining features. Churrigueresque mirrored the ornate and tradition-encrusted Spanish Hapsburg Dynasty that ruled Nueva España (Mexico) from the time of the Conquest to the very end of the 17th century. The Neo-Classic style was encouraged by the new, reformist, Bourbon Dynasty that took over Spain and its colonial possessions in 1700. The Bourbons viewed themselves as part of the Enlightenment and pushed for an end to many traditional styles and practices. The Neo-Classic style expresses sober, austere power. Frankly, I find Churrigueresque to be a lot more fun.


The ornate arch over the central image of the Virgin. Every inch is covered with intricate decorations. Churrigueresque developed very late in the Baroque era and was its logical extreme.


The Virgin of Guadalupe and an unidentified Church official occupy prominent niches. The painting shows one of the famous scenes of her legend. According to the story, an Aztec convert to Christianity named Juan Diego accepted a bouquet of Castilian roses from the Virgin. As proof of this extraordinary encounter, Juan Diego presented the roses to Bishop Zumárraga. Part of the miracle was that the roses were out of season and, in any case, were not native to the New World. However, the real proof came when he opened his tilma (Aztec-style cloak) to display the flowers and a clear image of the Virgin appeared on the cloth. The statue on the right is unidentified, but may represent Bishop Zumárraga.


Another painting shows more of the Virgin's legend. The Virgin of Guadalupe was a dark-skinned, Nahuatl-speaking apparition. Juan Diego's encounter with the Virgin was her very first appearance in Mexico. Because of these attributes, and because she first appeared to an indigenous man, she was adopted by the poor and the indigenous people as their patron. The Virgin of Guadalupe is still revered throughout Mexico.


Other chapels within the Parroquia

Another side-chapel, this time in the Neo-Classic style. This one is devoted to another version of the Virgin. Side-chapels like this seem to be popular with those seeking a few moments of quiet contemplation and often contain one or more people even when the main nave is empty.


A shadowy figure stands in a glass case in yet another side-chapel. As near as I can determine, the figure is Jesus. Other statues, including one of the Virgin, stand behind him on the altar. Like the previous chapel, this one is also Neo-Classic.


Retablo de Virgen de Guadalupe

The Parroquia contains several Churrigueresque retablos. A retablo is a carved, wooden altar set against a wall. These structures are often quite large and are another characteristic of the Baroque style. Sometimes a church's main altar will contain a retablo but, in addition, they are often found along the side walls of the main nave. The central figure is the Virgin of Guadalupe, seen in the bottom painting. She is surrounded by nine statues in niches and one standing in front, draped in satin. I have been unable to identify any of these figures. Eight of them appear to be from the 17th or early 18th centuries. The ninth statue, in the lower right, wears vestments that appear to be of a more modern cut.


Three male figures are seated in the top niche of the retablo. The positions of their hands indicate that they are giving a blessing, which suggests that they are religious officials. There is a group of disembodied heads at the feet of the seated figures, another typical Baroque touch. In addition to full-figure statues, retablos tend to be thickly populated with bodiless faces, cherubs, animals, and flowery vegetation.


The headgear of this figure indicates a rank of bishop, cardinal, or even pope. The hat is called a mitre and is generally worn only by church officials of those high ranks. Although the name of the figure is unknown to me, mitres were first worn in Rome approximately 950 AD. Therefore, he is probably not a Church official from an era earlier than that.


Another of the lively dancing kings. I was intrigued by this series of royal figures. I don't believe I've ever seen kings displaying such frivolity in a religious setting. Generally, royalty are depicted as very stiff and regal, or they are shown in heroic, military poses. It is possible that all four of the dancing kings are depictions of San Luis at various stages of his life, but this is only my conjecture.


Other retablos

Six statues fill the niches of a somewhat smaller retablo. The niches are framed by pilasters (false columns) in the shape of long, inverted cones. The style is called estipite, which became a popular element of Spanish Churrigueresque during the period between 1720 and 1760.

This retablo is almost identical to the previous one. Only the statues are different. It is probable that the same artist created both retablos. The central figure here is a nun, while the main statue in the previous retablo is a priest.

Retablo paintings

At the rear of the main nave are still more retablos. In this one, the central element is a painting of a man and woman looking reverently up at the Virgin. The painting is framed by two pilasters containing a total of four statues. At the top is a large figure of a bearded man, possibly a depiction of God.


This retablo stands across the aisle from the one seen previously. The overall structure of the two retablos is almost identical. Only the statues and the central paintings differ. The painting above shows the Virgin Mary carrying the infant Jesus, surrounded by angels. Notice the spiral Solomonic column on the left.

This completes Part 2 of my Tlaxcala series. I hope you have enjoyed visiting this old colonial church with its interesting mixture of Churrigueresque and Neo-Classic styles. If you'd like to comment or ask a question, please do so in the Comments section below, or email me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim