Jim & Carole's Mexico Adventure

A hiker pauses on a bridge shrouded with mist and suspended high over the jungle. This hanging bridge, Puente Vista Arenal, is one of several spanning the deep arroyos of Mistico Arenal Hanging Bridges Park. Our Caravan tour visited this mountain jungle on our way to the northwest coast of the country. To locate Mistico Arenal on a Google map, click here.

Overview

A map of the park shows the walkway and its many bridges. The pedestrian-only trail wanders along the steep mountain slopes and crosses deep arroyos on six suspension or "hanging" bridges. In addition there are nine shorter bridges. Had the day been clear, we would have been able to view Arenal Volcano, one of Costa Rica's several active volcanos. However, the swirling mists provided a charm of their own.

A tiny snake lies curled on a plant growing in Mistico Arenal's garden. We encountered this fellow near the entrance to the hanging bridges walkway. The snake was so small that I could easily have missed it if our guide had not pointed it out. The creature was only a few inches long and, curled as it was, I could have easily mistaken it for a caterpillar or even something inanimate. I have been unable to determine the species and, if there are any reptile experts out there, I would greatly appreciate an i.d. This was about the only animal I saw in the park, although others in our party saw various creatures.

The misty jungle was thick with vegetation. This shot will give you a feel of both the place and the day. Periodically, we were spattered with rain from the squalls that moved through the area. In the early 20th century, the land comprising Mistico Arenal was undeveloped jungle, and very inaccessible. The property was inherited through marriage by Doña Landelina Rodriguez and Don Adrian Castillo. The couple loved the area and wanted to preserve it to share with others.

Puente Vista Arenal

We approached Puente Vista Arenal from underneath. The bridge is 45m high and 75m long (148 ft x 246 ft). Because of the vegetation and mist, it was difficult to see where the bridge started and where it ended. We hoped it would be sturdier than it looked from a distance.

A small waterfall tumbles down the mountain slope. There were many of these and they joined together into raging streams in the canyons below. Don Adrian and Doña Landelina hired a company called Arenal Hanging Bridges to convert their dream into reality. The first step was to build an access road up to the area from the Arenal dam, far below. Construction started in 2000.

A few of the jungle's wide variety of leafy plants. Vines, ferns, and broad-leafed vegetation abounded. Construction of the road, the trails, and the hanging bridges was completed in 2002. It must have been quite a task, given the precipitous terrain and wet conditions.

View from a hanging bridge

I peered over the railing ofPuente Vista Arenal. Upon closer inspection, the bridge seemed quite sturdy. However, it did have a rather unnerving tendency to sway when crossed by several people at a time.

Another view from Puente Vista Arenal. The puente (bridge) gets its name because, on a clear day, Arenal Volcano can be seen from here. What we could see was a deep, misty arroyo stretching off into the distance. Just to the right of the photo's center you can see another hanging bridge.

Looking directly down, you can see a white cascade of water rushing through the arroyo. The water looks closer than it actually is because I used my extreme telephoto zoom. The Mistico Arenal Hanging Bridges were opened in 2002 and, until 2014, were operated by a development company, called Arenal Hanging Bridges. The company operated in partnership with the property's owners.
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Huge seed pods hung from this palm. I have never seen anything like these pods on any other palm. They were about 1.2m (4 ft) long and didn't grow from branches but directly from the palm's trunk. In 2014, the Arenal Hanging Bridges departed. The family owning the area took over under their own company, called Nalavi Verde SA.

Palm fruits hung on long strings from one of the seed pods which has opened. You can see the unopened pod shown previously, hanging from the trunk of the same tree. The seed strings looked like sparks curling down from a bursting skyrocket.

Puente La Catarata

Two people from our Caravan group cross a deep arroyo on Puente La Catarata. This bridge is 45m high and 92m in length (148 ft x 302 ft). The hanging span gets its name from the waterfall (catarata = cataract) that tumbles down the canyon far below. The weather had briefly cleared, allowing a ray of sunshine to bathe the bridge.

Catarata Morpha is the waterfall that can be seen from the hanging bridge. The water cascades through a narrow slot before tumbling down into the base of the gorge.

The rain forest trail

Tangled with vines, a large tree towers over the forest trail. In the distance, a couple of hikers wend their way through a tunnel of emerald foliage. The canyon wall rises steeply on the right and drops off even more steeply to the left.

Vivid clusters of red berries stand out among the greenery. Although the jungle is beautiful, it tends to be somewhat monotonous in it colors. The berries were a welcome relief from all the different shades of green and brown.

The thick roots of this tree spread out above the ground to help support its weight and height. The root structure looked similar to that of a ceiba tree, but I am not sure of this identification. In Guatemala, Yucatan, and other parts of Central America, the ceiba is revered as the Tree of Life. The roots represent the underworld; the trunk represents everyday reality; and the canopy represents the heavens.

I emerge from the white mist engulfing the bridge. Puente El Pilón stands 21m high and 53m long (69 ft x 174 ft). At each end of every hanging bridge are a pair of tall steel girders. The wires suspending each are strung from these girders.

This completes Part 8 of my Costa Rica series. I hope you enjoyed this visit to Mistico Arenal and, if so, you will leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Say ahhhhhhhh... A young American Crocodile lounges on a muddy riverbank along Rio Tarcoles. During this stop on our Caravan Tour we took a boat trip through the estuary formed where the river meets the Pacific Ocean in Costa Rica's Puntarenas Province. The country immediately around the river is flat, with swamps and lagoons where crocodiles abound. For a Google map showing the mouth of Rio Tarcoles, click here.

Launching the cruise

Our boat captain expertly maneuvered his craft around the river's islands and inlets. The boat is part of a small fleet owned by Jungle Crocodile Safaris. In addition to the boat captain, the tour included a bilingual guide to help us spot the animals. The company was founded in 1993 by Mario Fernando Orjuela Castro, a veterinarian who specialized in species such as crocodiles, boas, and iguanas. Tours last about two hours.

The boat captain's choice of a t-shirt provoked nervous chuckles among his passengers. While the boats are safe and this species of croc is not supposed to be aggressive toward people, I wasn't eager to test the theory. The Rio Tarcoles runs along the edge of Parque Nacional Carara before emptying into the ocean. The park is large, with an area of 5,242 hectares (12,953 acres), and it contains multiple ecosystems.

The tour boat was roomy and afforded good views from every seat. The craft was long, narrow, and had a flat bottom. This enabled the captain to move up narrow channels and drift along close to shore. While most folks wore their life jackets, you can see that a couple of youthful types decided against it. I guess they figured "why worry about drowning if you are going to get eaten anyway?" Or maybe they just counted on the invulnerability of the young.

Another tour boat approaches from up-river. This view gives an idea of the terrain. Near the shore, the country is relatively flat and covered with palms and other vegetation. A bit further back are heavily wooded foothills while, in the far distance, the Coast Range looms.

The river crocs

A tour boat employee warily eyes a croc floating a few feet from the boat stairs. The ridge of the croc's back can be seen just below the vegetation to the left of the photo's center. The creature could easily be mistaken for a floating log, which is one of the croc's prime hunting strategies. This species of American Crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) is not traditionally aggressive toward humans. However, some tour guides have been known to entertain tourists by feeding the crocs. This has led the creatures to associate humans with food, not a good idea. After a series of attacks on people, environmental officials began to enforce an existing law against such feeding.

A young croc floats lazily in the brown water. This one was probably about 2m (6 ft) long. Although not big for a croc on this river, he might still be capable of pulling you under or at least giving you a very nasty bite. It's well to remember that you are not in a petting zoo. Only one fatality has occurred on Rio Tarcoles since 1995, but there have been numerous non-fatal attacks. Some of these have resulted in the loss of limbs. The one fatality occurred when a drunken man decided to take a swim near a bridge from which tourists regularly throw meat to the crocs. The inebriated swimmer was literally ripped to shreds by a pack of crocs as the tourists above watched in horror.

Osama, King of the River. Near the middle of the river, we encountered this guy, affectionately dubbed Osama by the boatmen. At about 6m (18 ft), he is the largest croc in the area. This is close to the maximum size that this species reaches. He is estimated to weigh 907kg (2000 lbs). Osama floated serenely past us, before turning to continue on another leg of his patrol. Crocodiles have inhabited the planet for over 200 million years and are considered living dinosaurs. American Crocodiles can be found from southern Florida to Brazil and all along the Pacific Coast from Mexico to Central and South America. Their territory is primarily coastal, but they can also be found in rivers with a degree of salinity, such as Rio Tarcoles.

Another view of the young croc on the shore. Keeping his mouths open like this is a strategy for cooling his body. Fish, reptiles, birds, and small mammals are the usual diet, along with the occasional deer. One way to distinguish a crocodile from an alligator is the snout. A croc's is narrower and more V-shaped than the blunt, rounded snout of an alligator. Alligators can tolerate colder temperatures than crocodiles and so their territories don't usually overlap.

A baby croc slithers along a mudflat. This one was about 0.3m (1 ft), not much bigger than a hatchling. He was well camouflaged and difficult to spot at first. The mother croc will fiercely defend her eggs and newly hatched young. When danger threatens, she will gather the hatchlings in her mouth and carry them to the safety of nearby water.

Birds along the banks

An Osprey inspects the river below, possibly looking for a tasty bit of fish for lunch. As we cruised the channels and riverbanks, we saw a wide variety of birds. The Osprey (Pandion haliaetvus) is Costa Rica's largest raptor. It's talons are especially adapted to fishing, with two toes facing forward and two back. This enables the bird to grip with the fish's head forward, making for more efficient flight. The Osprey also has valves in its nostrils that close when it hits the water. It is a migratory bird, traveling from Florida to Brazil, with stops in Costa Rica or elsewhere along the way. Most of the birds I show here were identified for me by either Tom Holeman or Georgia Conti, my two bird experts. My thanks to both.

The Black-necked Stilt is a wading bird. Its legs are longer than some other wading birds, allowing the bird to fish in deeper water. This species of Stilt (Himantropus mexicanus) has an extremely sensitive bill that it uses to probe the mud for worms, tadpoles, crustaceans, and small fish. Most Black-necked Stilts are residents of Costa Rica's coastal areas, but some are migratory from the Caribbean. (Bird i.d. by Tom Holeman)

Yellow-crowned night-herons live in marshes and estuaries. They can be found along Costa Rica's Caribbean and Pacific Coasts. The Yellow-crown night-heron (Nyctanassa violacea) gets the last part of its common name because it is a night-hunter. However, the bird will also feed during the day if the tidal conditions are right. Its thick bill is especially adapted to catching crabs and crayfish. (Bird i.d. by Georgia Conti)

The Tri-colored Heron is one of several species of heron found in Costa Rica. It can be distinguished by the white and chestnut stripe down its throat. The Tri-colored Heron (Egretta tricolour) is found along both of Costa Rica's coasts in river estuaries, marshes, and mangrove lagoons. In addition to striding slowly through the water while feeding, it will also use its feet to stir up prey from the bottom. Sometimes the Tricolored Heron will crouch, hop, and then spear its prey with its sharp beak. (Bird i.d. by Tom Holeman)

The Wood stork's head and beak give it a dinosaur-era appearance. In fact, the Wood Stork (Mycteria americana) looks strong enough to carry a baby in a cloth sling from its beak, as seen in the cartoons. It is the second tallest bird in Costa Rica, after the Jabiru. This stork may look similar to an egret, but it is actually more closely related to vultures. When feeding, the bird doesn't spear prey with its beak but wades along with its beak open in the water. When prey is contacted, the beak snaps shut. The Wood Stork feeds on small to medium-side fish, crayfish, frogs, and even recently hatched caimans. (Bird i.d. by Tom Holeman)

Willets are part of the sandpiper family and are very common on Costa Rica's coasts. Willets (Catoptrophorus semipalmatus) are locally called Pigüilo. These birds are quite noisy, making sounds like "keeek" and "whreek." Some Willets migrate from Costa Rica through Panama to the South American coasts, but others remain in residence here. And why not? The Costa Rican humans' favorite saying is Pura Vida ("Pure Life"). If you listen closely, you may hear the resident Willets call out the same thing. (Bird i.d. by Tom Holeman)

A small flock of Neotropic cormorants perches on the dead branches of a tree. Neotropic Cormorants (Phalacrocorax brasilianus) are also called Olivaceous Cormorants. They are about the size of small ducks and have been around for a long time. Fossil evidence for cormorants goes back 30 million years. In order to better chase fish, their primary prey, the cormorants' legs are set far back on their bodies. Like Brown Pelicans, they will sometimes dive to fish. Other times, like White Pelicans, they swim in groups in order to herd the fish close to shore so they can more easily gobble them up. (Bird i.d. by Tom Holeman)

Other interesting river residents

A Double-crested basilisk lizard suns itself on a riverbank boulder. We saw another of these on our Rio Frio cruise, but that one was bright green. The proper name for this creature is Basiliscus plumifrons. The common name comes from the two separate crests along the lizard's body and tail. They can be found along river banks throughout Central and northern South America.

A pair of white-breasted bald-headed marimba players. Very common in this region. They are generally found in pairs or even trios near commercial feeding areas. To attract attention, and thus sustenance, they create a peculiarly pleasant musical sound. Their major method of feeding themselves is through something called "tips".

This completes Part 9 of my Costa Rica series. I hope you enjoyed it and, if so, you will leave any questions or comments in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you do leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE include your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

A pensive young girl strolls along as the surf breaks behind her on the nearly empty beach . Costa Rica's Pacific Coast contains hundreds of miles of beautiful beaches. Following our stop at the Hanging Bridges of Arenal (see Part 9 of this series), our Caravan Tour headed for the coast. In this posting, I'll give you a little taste of what you might find along the coastal areas of Guanacaste and Puntarenas Provinces.

Relief map of Northwest Coast Rica. The capital of San Jose, where we began our journey (Part 1), lies in the Central Valley in the lower right corner of the photo. Our tour took us into the mountains north of San Jose to visit the Poas Volcano and then up to Rio Frio on the Nicaraguan border near the top of the map. After the river cruise, we traveled back south to Lake Arenal (center of photo) where we visited the Hanging Bridges. Then we drove west to the coast of Guanacaste Province to visit a sea turtle sanctuary before stopping for the night at a beach resort. The following day, our journey took us back across the neck of the Nicoya Peninsula and down the eastern shore of the Bahia de Nicoya. Along the way, we stopped to take a ride on an aerial tram up through a deep jungle-filled canyon. In Part 11 (the next, and last, of this series) I'll show the Central Coast down to the beach town of Quepos and the adjacent Parque Nacional Manuel Antonio, our last stop before returning to San Jose.

The beach communities

The beach at Leatherback Turtle National Park was almost empty when we visited. The park's Spanish name is Parque Nacional Marino La Baulas, While the central and southern coasts are warm and humid, Guanacaste's coast is hot and dry. Sunblock and plenty of water are essentials for those considering a visit. The park consists of Langosta, Ventanas, and Grande beaches and a protected undersea area extending 12 miles out to sea. The estuaries and mangrove swamps behind the beaches are also included. In total, the protected area covers 175 sq km (109 sq mi). Leatherbacks (Dermochelys coriasea) are the biggest turtles in the world and can weigh as much as 907 kg (2000 lbs). These beaches provide their most important nesting areas along the whole Pacific Coast. While local environmentalists are doing their best to protect the creatures, it is a very difficult fight and the Leatherbacks' future is in doubt. Unfortunately, we saw no live Leatherbacks during our short visit. However, we did visit the small museum and viewed a informative video. Caravan Tours has been very supportive of local efforts to aid the turtles.

One creature we did encounter was this large Neotropical rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus). The snake, about 1.22 m (4 ft) long, was slowly slithering across the highway as our bus approached. Being environmentally conscious, our driver quickly stopped to avoid crushing him. In the shot above, the snake has safely crossed the road and is making his way into the forest. You can see the tail rattles in the lower left of the photo. This poisonous species can grow as large as 2 m (6 ft) and its lightning-fast strike can be very serious, even fatal. The poison not only renders its prey immobile but contains neurotoxins to break down tissues. You probably don't want to trip over this guy while thrashing through the jungle.

One of the less-commonly encountered reptiles of Costa Rica's jungles. This full-sized Tyrannosaurus Rex was hanging out near the parking lot of a restaurant where we stopped for lunch. About 60 million years ago, meeting this fellow might have caused some concern. However, the only thing consumed that day was a considerable quantity of Costa Rica's traditional meal: chicken, rice, and beans.

A graceful foot-bridge extends across a narrow neck of the pool at the J.W. Marriott Hotel. While swimming in the pool, I underestimated the strength of the sun and neglected to use my sunblock. After only about 10 minutes, I acquired a bad burn that remained uncomfortable for nearly a week. Visitors should keep my experience in mind. This large resort-hotel complex is located some distance from Pinilla, the nearest town. While the J.W. Marriott property was beautiful, we found its remoteness to be confining and its atmosphere a bit too manicured. The only way to visit Pinilla to sample the local culture was by taxi, costing $14 (USD) per head. In addition, drink prices at J.W. Marriott were exorbitant. A beer cost $5.00 and a half a glass of house wine was an eye-popping $10.00. On the up-side, our rooms were comfortable, the hotel food was good, and staff was friendly and attentive.

Tide pools formed from volcanic lava mark the southern boundary of the hotel's beach. I took this shot in the late afternoon as the sun's golden rays bathed the volcanic rock, creating a rosy glow. The water was calm and the fierce heat of mid-day became balmy as evening approached.

Aerial tram

An aerial tram gondola passes over a waterfall deep in a gorge of the coastal range. A short drive up into the coastal mountains will bring you to one of Costa Rica's many aerial trams. Taking a ride on one of these will give you, literally, a bird's eye view of the countryside. Each gondola will fit only a handful of people so, if you arrive at the same time as a tour group, or are part of one, you may need to wait a bit to get aboard.

The forest on either side of the gorge grows thickly up its steep sides. Rainforest Adventures Costa Rica Pacific operates this tram. The ticket price was included in the cost of our Caravan Tour but, for those going "a la carte", the cost is $60 (USD) per adult and $30 for a child. The turnoff from the Coast Highway (#34) is at Jaco, a few miles south of Bahia Herradura.

Bright yellow primavera flowers sprout from the trees along the gorge. In some places you can almost reach out and pluck the flowers from the tree tops as you pass.

Gondolas glide slowly through the forest canopy. The two gondolas on the left are rising while the ones one the right are heading back. Each gondola seats nine passengers: eight tourists and one bi-lingual (Spanish-English) naturalist guide.

A small waterfall rushes over a rock face near where the gondolas turn to head down. There are 18 gondolas and one arrives every few minutes at the small station far below. It takes a few minutes to debark one set of passengers and embark another, so the other 17 gondolas periodically halt in the air along the way. This makes photography a bit easier since shooting while moving can be tricky.

A monitor lizard greeted us when we debarked from our gondola. This fearless creature was about 0.6 m (2 ft) long. Native to Africa, Asia, and Oceania, monitors are an invasive species. They probably arrived in Costa Rica as pets. When released, they rapidly adapted to their new environment, probably at the expense of some native species.

This completes Part 10 of my Costa Rica series. I hope you have enjoyed it and, if so, you will leave your thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email them to me directly. If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE also leave your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

A Central American Squirrel Monkey clambers among the trees in Quepos. As our bus eased through the small resort town's thick traffic, the curious monkey followed along, scampering from tree to tree to observe us. The Squirrel Monkey (Saimiri oerstedii) is one of the several species of monkey native to Costa Rica. It can only be found along the country's central and southern Pacific Coasts and the coast of northern Panamá. This species of monkey is omnivorous and lives in groups of 20-75 individuals. Its population has declined since the 1970s due to deforestation and capture for sale as a pet. Efforts at conservation have improved the Squirrel Monkey's situation, although it is still listed as "vulnerable". The last leg of our Costa Rica tour before returning to San José took us along the coast of Puntarenas Province to the seaside pueblo of Quepos. One of the country's most famous wildlife preserves, Parque Nacional Manuel Antonio, adjoins the town. For a Google map of this section of Costa Rica, click here.

The coast of Puntarenas

The province of Puntarenas possesses spectacular beaches, some lined with luxury hotels. The beaches can sometimes be found along broad bays like the one shown above. Other times they lie along small crescent-shaped coves with rocky points at either end. The coastal mountains sometimes drop right down to the sea, but elsewhere they may be set back several miles, providing space for towns and farms.

One of the many luxury hotels fronting the beach along Puntarenas's coast. Tourism is a very large part of the nation's economy. Well-heeled visitors from North America and Europe, as well as elsewhere in Latin America, come every winter to bask in the sunshine.

Off-shore islands like these dot the coast. Most are uninhabited, but some contain nature preserves and can be visited by boats rented at nearby resort towns.

A Scarlet Macaw munches on wild fruit growing in a tree beside the coast road. There were several of these colorful birds dining in the roadside branches when our bus came by. The driver stopped so we could get some photos. The blissful birds ignored us as they consumed the succulent fruit. The Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) is found along the Caribbean Coast of Mexico and in Central America, Colombia, Bolivia, Venezuela, and Brazil. Like the Squirrel Monkey, they are threatened by habitat destruction as well as the pet trade. Macaws are monogamous animals and will stay with the same mate for life. Eggs are incubated by the female and the chicks reach adulthood after five years.

Hotel San Bada, in Quepos is adjacent to the main entrance of Parque Nacional Manuel Antonio. Hotel San Bada possesses luxurious grounds, including this beautifully landscaped swimming pool. Of all the hotels where our Caravan Tour stopped, this was the only one that was not isolated from the local community. Quepos is a popular beach town, with accommodations ranging from luxury to rustic. Restaurants, bars, and night-spots are plentiful, as are street vendors eager to sell you their handicrafts. Also plentiful are various ecological adventures such as tree-top zip-lining and parasailing.

A para-sailor drifts through a Pacific sunset. This was one of several we observed from the roof-top bar of the hotel. After a long day of traveling the coast, we dropped our luggage in our room and made a bee-line for the bar. A tall, cold, adult beverage was definitely in order.

My long-range zoom lens revealed that one of the parachutes supported a trio of adventurers. I never knew that they could be group experiences. I tried out one of these rides in Cancun, Mexico, years ago. I recall looking down several hundred feet to the ocean below and suddenly realizing that the only things attaching me to the parachute harness were a couple of small metal clips of unknown quality. It was a sobering thought.

Parque Nacional de Manuel Antonio

Stairways, wooden ramps, and bridges wind through the park's jungle. The idea is to allow visitors to enjoy the experience without trampling the flora or fauna. This makes sense given the mobs of people we found thronging most of the pathways. Perhaps it was because our visit coincided with Christmas Week, a popular family vacation time. We couldn't believe there were 75-80 people at the front gate at the 7 AM opening time. When we left the park at mid-day, there were several hundred more lined up, waiting their turn to enter. Fortunately, most folks kept to the main walkways and missed this one, leaving us with a bit of peace and quiet. For a map of Manuel Antonio Park, click here.

A Ceiba tree's broad roots spread out over the jungle floor. The Ceiba was considered holy by pre-hispanic peoples and is still revered by their modern descendants. Although this national park is Costa Rica's smallest, it is one of the most famous. The land area encompasses 1,700 acres, and its ocean protectorate covers 136,000 acres. The land area of Manuel Antonio contains tropical forest, lagoons, mangrove swamps, and white, sandy beaches. 109 species of mammals, as well as 184 of birds, make it one of the most biodiverse parks in the world.

A female Golden Orb Spider tends its web, hoping for the arrival of a meal. The Golden Orbs (Nephila clavipes) are quite amazing creatures. They are famous for their webs, the strands of which are five times stronger than steel and more flexible than nylon. The web is so tough and resilient that if one could be built in the right proportions, it could catch an airliner in mid-flight! In addition, the spiders can change the color of the web to match the background, making it invisible to prey. There is a huge disparity in size between the large female and the much smaller male. In fact, the male is so much smaller that it can inseminate the female without her even noticing. Males of this species sometimes become free-loaders. Their small size allows them to live in the web and eat the prey without the female catching on. I suspect some feminists out there are probably already saying "just like a man!"

The remarkably spiky bark of this tree attracted my attention. Pejibaye palms (Bactris gasipaes) grow wild in the park but are cultivated elsewhere for their fruit and the edible heart of the trunk. The tree is also known as a peach palm for its reddish/orange fruit. It is found in the hot, humid, areas of Latin America, including Central America, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil. In the 1920s, it was introduced into the US, the Philippines, and India.

This peach palm fruit is still green. The fruit may grow in clusters as large as 50-300. Some may weigh up to 11.4 kg (25 lbs). The spiny trunk of the tree makes climbing it nearly impossible so the fruit is harvested using long-handled poles with cutters at the end. Pejibaye fruit contain carotene, phosphorus and ascorbic acid as well as 1500 times the recommended daily dosage of Vitamin A. It must be cooked 1-3 hours before it can be eaten.

A Two-toed Sloth hangs lazily in the branches. This upside down posture is typical of the animal. Oddly, while they can fairly easily be spotted in the forest, it is very difficult to get a photograph of theis faces. Perhaps they are just shy. The formal name of this sloth is Choloepus hoffmanni. It has two toes on the front legs, but three toes on the back ones. That is what differentiates this species from its cousin, the Three-toed Sloth, which has three toes all around. Sloths eat only leaves, which are generally a low-nutrient food and such a diet results in lethargy. Hence, the name.

Playa de Manuel Antonio is one of several lovely beaches along the park's shoreline. This relatively small cove is very popular with sunbathers, swimmers, and picnickers. Troops of monkeys regularly visit the shore, looking for a handout. These animals are accustomed to human contact and have become notorious for stealing food and other items from unguarded daypacks and purses.

A vulture contemplates the sunset from a perch near our hotel. The day after our visit to Manuel Antonio, we headed back to San José, the capital. We had seen a great deal of Costa Rica in nine days, but by no means everything. There is still much we'd like to see, including some of the reputedly wonderful museums, ancient ruins, and the nation's Caribbean Coast. Maybe next time?

This concludes Part 11 and ends my series on Costa Rica. I hope you have enjoyed sharing the journey with us. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in Comments section below or email us directly. If you leave a question in the Comments section PLEASE leave your email address so I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

An Owl Dancer performs in Ajijic. Owls were important symbolic creatures in the pre-hispanic world. They are depicted in various murals and pottery paintings found at the great city of Teotihuacan (100 AD - 650 AD). In addition, they appear in the mythology of both the Maya and the Mexica (Aztecs). Several months ago, Carole and I attended a performance by a visiting troupe of indigenous dancers held at the Auditorio de la Ribera here in Ajijic. The music for the dancers was played on reproductions of a variety of Aztec instruments.

This kind of drum is called an huehuetl. The word is from Nahuatl, the language of the Mexica. They shared this tongue with many of the other nomadic groups who migrated from the great deserts of the north into the Valley of Mexico after the fall of Teotihuacan. In Nahuatl, huehue means "very old", or "venerable" and therefore of great importance. The huehuetl was considered so important that its name became synonymous for gatherings of musicians, whatever the instrument they played. These drums were usually made from the wood of the ahuehuete, a kind of cypress sometimes called a "drum tree". While huehuetls were sometimes made from clay or even precious metals, not many of those types survived the Conquest. The sides of the drums contain mystical symbols and the hollow wooden cylinders are supported by decoratively carved tripods. The bottoms of the drum cylinders are open, but the tops are covered by tightly stretched animal skins. These are struck with the fingers to produce several different tones according to how near or far from the center the fingers hit.

The Owl Dancer's piercing eyes stare out from under his extraordinary headdress. The owl eyes of his costume have a deep significance. The rain god Tlaloc was one of the most important mythical figures of the ancient world. He is nearly always depicted with rings around his eyes. These are often described by archaeologists as "goggles", but some of them believe the rings are imitations of owl eyes. Tlaloc was the only one of the massive array of Aztec gods who was allowed to share equal billing with Huitzilopochtli, the god of the sun and war. Together, their shrines occupied the top of the Templo Mayor, the great pyramid in Tenochtilan (now Mexico City) which was the center of the Aztec universe.

Tlalpanhuehuetl, or standing drum. On top of the drum, you can see two other instruments: a gourd rattle and a conch shell. While huehuetl drummers played sitting down, those using a tlalpanhuehuetl stood. Carved on the top and bottom sides of the drum are an eagle and the sun, both symbols of Huitzilopochtli. He moved across the sky during the day, keeping the darkness at bay and providing the light and warmth that allowed the crops to grow. According to Mexica beliefs, Huitzilopochtli had to be fed a constant diet of human blood in order to gain the strength to return each morning and thus keep the world intact. This fitted nicely with the Mexica's own appetite for warfare. Their conquests resulted in Mesoamerica's greatest and most powerful empire, at least until its destruction by the Spanish. In addition to wars of conquest, the Mexica also fought what they called "Flowery Wars." These conflicts were staged on a regular basis solely to capture enemy soldiers who could be sacrificed on Huitzilopochtli's altar atop the Templo Mayor. Thousands had their living hearts ripped out while the last sound they heard was the thunderous drumming of huehuetls and tlalpanhuehuetls.

Skull Dancer wearing chachayotes, which are anklets of ayayote nut shells filled with pellets. Even one dancer wearing chachayotes creates a rythmic noise of considerable volume. Imagine hundreds, or even thousands, dancing in the great plaza in front of the Templo Mayor. In addition to his chachayotes and penacho de plumas (feathered headdress), he wears a loincloth with the pattern of a jaguar's fur. Jaguars were another animal considered sacred throughout Mesoamerica. They are extremely powerful night hunters and the ancients believed that these qualities connected them to the forces of darkness and death. The two most important military cults of the Mexica (and the Toltecs before them) were the Eagle and the Jaguar warriors who dressed in costumes imitative of their totem creatures.

These two horizontal drums are called teponaztli. The drummers were usually seated while playing this instrument. However, during warfare, these drums were sometimes worn hanging at the waist from a neck cord. There are accounts of Mexica kings leading their warriors into battle while playing a teponaztli. Each hollowed-out log has cuts along its length and across the middle, made in the shape of an "H". These cuts create two keys which are played with rubber-tipped sticks. The keys might be cut to different lengths or thicknesses to create different tones. Sometimes the end or bottom of the instrument was open to increase the volume. The teponaztli were often used to accompany huehuetls. In addition to warfare, the drums were often used to accompany poetry and singing.

The Skull Dancer's head gear includes a skull mask framed by an extravagant penacho. The artistic representation of skulls, or the ritual use of actual human skulls themselves, was common in pre-hispanic civilizations. The ancients viewed death as another plane of existence, not oblivion. Further, they saw death as inextricably connected to life, i.e. another expression of the duality of the universe which includes day vs night, male vs female, cold vs hot, etc.

Turtle-shell drums were called ayotl or sometimes ayocacallotl.The use of the ayotl was generally restricted to funerals. Early colonial historians recorded that they were played during death rites for a Tarascan king. At the end of the ceremony, the dead ruler's top officials and servants were clubbed to death in order to accompany their leader into the afterlife. Behind the ayotl are several pieces of stone also used as musical instruments. These lithophones, called tehuehuetl, are made from volcanic stone slabs. The tehuehuetl are beaten with stone spheres to create a kind of hollow ringing sound.

A pair of rattlesnakes twine themselves around five skulls in this unidentified instrument. As best as I can figure, this resembles the "rainsticks" found in Central and South America, Southeast Asia, Australia, and Africa. Such instruments are given the name because they are hollow and filled with pebbles or seeds. When they are upended, the pellets inside cascade down the length of the interior. The resulting sound resembles falling rain striking leaves in the forest. The purpose of a rainstick is to encourage rain. It is possible, but not confirmed, that rainsticks may have made their way from Central or South America to the Aztec Empire.

The musicians and dancers included children, some quite young. The inclusion of children is a means of keeping these traditions alive. Some of the instruments I have been describing can be seen in use above. On the left, are three of the tlalpanhuehuetls, one played by the Skull Dancer. On the right, two young musicians play tehuehuetls and a teponaztli.

This concludes my posting. I hope you have enjoyed the images and stories behind these ancient instruments. If you liked this posting, I hope you will leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below, or email me directly. If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

A trail winds through the pine-forested Tapalpa Plateau. The Tapalpa Plateau lies about two-hour's drive southwest of Lake Chapala. On its eastern side is a massive escarpment which rises more than 2000 feet above a long, north-south valley. The valley floor is filled with farm fields and a chain of shallow lakes which dry up part of each year. The switchbacks on road up the escarpment provide dramatic views of the valley below. Once on top, you find rolling country filled with lush meadows, sparkling lakes, and deep pine forests. This is gorgeous country! I have previously blogged about adventures in the area, including El Salto Waterfall and Chiquilistlán Gorge. The Tapalpa Plateau is huge and covers an area within a rough triangle between three roads. Highway 54D (the Guadalajara-Colima toll road) forms the eastern side of the triangle. Highway 429 is the southern side, running between Ciudad Guzman and Autlán de Navarro. Highway 80 is on the west, beginning at its intersection with 54D and running down to Autlán de Navarro. For a Google map showing the area, click here.

Setting off

The hike began on a dirt road leading up into the forest. Our party of five included (from right to left) Jim B, his wife Brenda, Chuck, and Chuck's best friend Matty the dog. I was, of course, behind the camera in this shot.

View down from the road as we gained some altitude. A modern-looking tractor was spraying a very well-kept bean field below us. Mexico is a strange and charming mixture of old and new. In other places I have seen farmers walking behind 19th century plows pulled by a single horse.

New maguey leaves are wound tightly together in a sharply pointed cone. The hooked barbs along the leaf edge are still lying flat against the surface of the translucent cone. As the leaves mature, they will gradually open up into their adult shape, a long curved trough. Maguey has been a useful plant ever since pre-hispanic times. The Aztec created a special goddess called Mayahuel whose job it was to supervise everything associated with the plant. Fibers stripped from the adult leaves were used to make string, ropes, sandals and cloth. The spine found at the end of each leaf was used as a needle. The heart of the maguey is edible and has been used since ancient times to produce the mildly intoxicating drink called pulque. In modern times, pulque has been eclipsed by beer, but it is still popular in the Mexican countryside. When the Spanish came, they distilled maguey heart's juice into the powerful alcoholic drink called mezcal. A close relative of the maguey, called blue agave, is used to make Mexico's world-famous tequila.

Lush grass carpets a small meadow overlooking a heavily wooded mountainside. At this point, we were hiking along a ridge and the land dropped off steeply into deep arroyos on both sides of the road. Along some stretches of the road, farmers had planted maguey at frequent intervals to form a natural fence.

As we moved deeper into the forest, we began to encounter pine sap collectors. We had turned off the road and onto a forest trail when we encountered this odd-looking arrangement. A brief inspection revealed its purpose. The sap is gathered by carving a trough along the trunk of a living tree. At the bottom of the trough, a container is propped so that the sap flows into it. Pine sap can be used to make sealants, rosin, and cleaning products. In addition, it can also be distilled into turpentine. This particular collection method looked pretty rustic, so I imagine that it is being collected by locals for their own use rather than for large-scale commercial purposes.

Clear water drips out of a moss-covered spring. The stone around the spring appears to be limestone. This would make sense because limestone collects water due to its porosity. The natural world is filled with beautiful little vignettes like this, just waiting to be photographed.

Into the woods

Parts of the forest are filled with epiphytes like the ones growing atop these tree branches. Epiphytes are not parasitic, since they don't live at the expense of their host. The draw their sustenance from the air and rain and merely use their host for physical support. We had turned off the road and onto a trail

Long stretches of the trail are carpeted by thick layers of pine needles. Walking on them felt, quite literally, like stepping onto an expensive carpet. After hiking the rocky trails of the mountains around Lake Chapala, the softness under my feet was a real pleasure.

A small, spiky plant grew up out of the pine needles along the trail. I believe this is some sort of succulent, but I haven't been able to confirm it through my own sources. If anyone knows what this plant is, please leave the i.d. in the Comments section below. Whatever it is called, the little green plant showed up beautifully against the rust-colored pine needles.

This appears to be an Artists Conk mushroom, but my identification is not certain. Also called a "shelf mushroom" from its shape, the formal name is Ganoderma applanatum. They grow on the bark of both living and dead trees. When they occur on living trees, they are parasites. Unlike many other mushrooms, Artists Conk grows year round.

These look a lot like subaeruginosa mushrooms. However, that hallucinogenic species is native to Australia, so I'm not sure. In any case, it is never a good idea to consume any mushroom unless you know exactly what you are eating. Some are deadly poison. Whatever they are, we found them growing all over the forest floor.

Rubiaceae is the family name of this flower. Within the family there are 611 genera and 13,500 species. Useful products of the many Rubiaceae species include coffee, quinine, and various plant dyes. Some, like these, are just pretty mountain flowers that brighten up a hike in the woods.

Salvia is sometimes called sage. Some varieties of this plant are medicinal, with antiseptic and antibiotic properties. There is a French legend that four thieves were captured ransacking the homes of those who had died of the plague. People were desperate to ward off the plague and the robbers obviously had not been infected by close proximity with the dead. The authorities offered to spare the thieves if they gave up the secret of their immunity. The culprits claimed that they marinated sage in vinegar and rubbed the result all over their bodies. It was not recorded whether this worked for anyone else.

Mountain piety

Two images of the Virgin of Zapopan, nestle under a small rock shelter. We only noticed them because a string with colorful banners was draped nearby. The Virgin of Zapopan is venerated in Jalisco and throughout Mexico. Zapopan was originally a separate pueblo to the west of Guadalajara but has been swallowed up in the metropolitan area. In the 16th century, Antonio de Segovia was the Franciscan friar assigned to the area. He presented an image of the Virgin to the indigenous people of the pueblo. The legend of the Virgin's statue began when the Franciscan took it along when he met with local people who were revolting against the Spanish during the Mixton Rebellion of 1541. According to the story, the indigenous warriors saw luminous rays emanating from the statue and decided to surrender. Over more than 200 years, a number of other incidents relating to the statue were reported. In 1653, Bishop Don Juan Ruiz Colmenero of Guadalajara declared the statue to be "miraculous". He set December 18 as the Feast Day for the Virgin of Zapopan. Her fiesta has become a huge event drawing more than 1 million people to the annual parade when she is taken from Guadalajara's Cathedral to the Basilica of Zapopan.

Another trail-side shrine at a crossroad deep in the mountains. A flat board has been placed on a pile of rocks to form a simple altar. A rough wooden cross stands behind the altar and is decorated with multi-colored ribbons. The country people of Jalisco are very religious and we have found similar shrines and crosses at many trail intersections in the areas where we hike.

Another view of the shrine. A much larger cross, draped with cloth was propped against the same tree. In the distance, Chuck and Matty walk down one of the forks of the intersection. The banners hung of the altar are similar to those found at many other Mexican fiestas.

Ranches & Farms

As we walked along a dirt road, the local rancher showed up to look us over. He is wearing typical ranch gear, including cowboy boots, leather chaps, and a broad-brimmed hat. He was cordial enough, but I think he couldn't quite figure out what we were up to.

A carefully attended bean field. The field was not large, but it showed considerable care and was set up for irrigation. Beans are one of the staples, along with maiz, squash, and chile, of the Mexican diet.

A small herd of cattle relaxed in a meadow across from the bean field. These appear to be Herefords, raised for beef. The breed originated in Herefordshire in England during the 18th century. The breed has spread across most of the world because the cattle are hardy and can stand radically different climates.

The Tipping Rock and the Return

Jim B's moment of triumph. Our goal for this hike was to reach this rock formation, a local landmark. Never one to shrink from an interesting rock climb, Jim scrambled up to see if the rock would really tip for him. It did. After getting my shot, I picked my way to join him. We had learned the route for our hike from our friend John Pint. He writes a column for the Guadalajara Reporter, a weekly English-language newspaper widely read among expats in Jalisco.

"Crazy Gringos!" A young horseman and his dog both stared up at us while we cavorted on the rock. The horseman struggled to keep a straight face as he climbed on this horse. He and a fellow horsemen had been working just below the rock formation. They soon rode away, no doubt to avoid any disaster should we tip the rock off its supporting boulder.

Best friends forever. Chuck and Matty adore each other. Actually, Matty is quite liberal with her affections. When the two of them show up at a hiking rendezvous, Matty will make her way around the entire group, greeting each person individually.

On the return trail. We retraced our steps to our car, heading down a long slope toward a lush valley. The hike had not been overly strenuous, but the scenery was gorgeous atop the Tapalpa Plateau. It definitely rates a return trip some day.

This completes my posting on our Tapalpa Plateau hike. I hope you have enjoyed the journey as much as we did. If you would like to leave a comment or ask a question, please do so by using the Comments section below or emailing me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Sunset over the calm waters of Lago deValle de Bravo. In July of this year, Carole and I took off to explore the mountainous countryside to the west and south of Mexico City. Our ultimate destination was Taxco, a town famous for its silver jewelry. Since the drive was too long for one day, we searched for a suitable stop-over and settled on Valle de Bravo. This lakeside town is one of Mexcio's famous Pueblos Magicos, a status it achieved in 2005. Valle, as the locals call it, was slightly off our route, but its reputation for tranquil beauty appealed to us. We scheduled our first two nights there, as well as one night during our return trip. To trace our route from Lake Chapala to Valle de Bravo, click here (follow the blue line on the map). We were able to use Mexico's smooth, high-speed cuotas (toll roads) for almost the entire distance. Although I enjoy exploring the back roads of Mexico, a cuota is the best and fastest way to cover a substantial distance by auto. These safe, well-maintained, limited-access highways are lightly traveled in most areas and are superior to many freeways I have driven in the US. For a Google map of Valle de Bravo and its lake, click here.

Plaza de la Independencia

The south side of Plaza de Independencia, looking west. The main plaza is always the place to start exploring a Mexican town. I picked our hotel, La Capilla, in part because of its location only 2.5 blocks from Plaza de la Independencia. In the 16th century, Spain's King Phillip II decreed that every town in Nueva España (today's Mexico) must be centered on a plaza. As a result, like the plaza of virtually every other former colonial pueblo, Valle's is bordered by a church, a government building, and various stores fronted with covered walkways called portales. Many of today's commercial establishments are housed in what were once colonial-era mansions. Some of these structures date to the 17th or 18th centuries and have been beautifully restored. Today, the former mansions contain shops, restaurants and hotels. Mexican communities take great pride in the appearance of their plazas and the central garden of Plaza de la Independencia was undergoing renovation when we visited. Unfortunately this meant it was blocked off. However, the upside was that the streets immediately surrounding the plaza were also blocked off. They became andadores, or walking streets, at least during the renovations. Not having to dodge traffic was a definite plus. For a map of the plaza area, click here.

Late afternoon sun bathes the hills surrounding the lake. I took this shot in the opposite direction from the previous photo (yes, it's the same tree).Valle de Bravo is built on mountain slopes which drop down to the water. This is a great walking town, but you'd better be prepared for some steep climbs as you move around. Good walking shoes are a must. The upright structure in the center of the photo is the back of a mobile shoeshine stand, something found in almost every plaza.

Restaurant Michoacana occupies two floors of a structure on the east side of the plaza. The modestly-priced food at Restaurant Michoacana was traditional Mexican. We took a table next to the railing on the second floor balcony so we could people-watch as we ate our dinner. Many balconies around the plaza contain similar restaurants. In fact, LaMichoacana shares this balcony with an ice cream shop.

Parroquia de San Francisco de Assis, viewed from the west side of the plaza, looking north. The Parroquia, (Parish) church occupies the whole north side of the plaza. Normally this street would be full of traffic, but the renovation allows strollers and street merchants to have free rein. Hanging out at the plaza is a major form of entertainment in most Mexican towns. In the relaxed atmosphere, vendors hawk their wares, kids play, dogs frolic, young people flirt, and their elders chat with old friends.

Valle's attractive old churches

Parroquia de San Francisco de Assis bathes in the warm glow of the setting sun. The yellowish-orange glow comes from the rock, called cantera, from which the church is built. Cantera is a volcanic stone quarried exclusively in Mexico and Central America. In fact, the word cantera means "quarry" in Spanish. Relatively light and easily worked, cantera is a popular material for construction as well as for sculpture. The original Franciscan church located here was built in the 17th century. It contained two naves, one for the Spanish and one for the indigenous people. That structure was replaced in the 19th century by the current Neo-Classic-style church. Construction began in 1880 but was not completed until 1994. San Francisco (St. Francis) is the patron saint of the town, which used to be called San Francisco del Valle before it was renamed Valle de Bravo after Nicolás Bravo, hero of both the War of Independence (1810-1821) and of the Mexican-American War (1846-1848).

Templo Santa Maria Ahuacatlán. Built in the 17th century, the Templo contains a statue called the Black Christ. The image is revered because of various miracles associated with it. According to legend, a local hacienda owner became disturbed because so many native people were visiting the chapel attached to his casa grande. To re-direct their devotion away from his personal chapel, he built another chapel some distance away in the small lake-side village of Ahuacatlán. He also donated a statue of Christ from his own chapel. The donated image bore the usual European complexion. Later, during a dispute between the people of Ahuacatlán the neighboring indigenous village of San Gaspar, someone set the Ahuacantlán chapel on fire. One of the few items to survive was the statue, blackened by the fire but otherwise intact. This miraculous occurrence caused the warring villages to settle their differences amicably. The Black Christ was taken from the burnt-out chapel and reverently installed in Templo Santa Maria, where it has remained ever since. Over time, other miracles occurred and the statue's fame spread. Today, the church is known as Santa Maria del Cristo Negro. Unfortunately, the church was locked during the time we visited, so we never actually saw the statue. Maybe next time?

A brightly-colored parasail drifts over Templo Santa Maria. Valle de Bravo has become a mecca for paragliding and other adventure sports. In addition to paragliding, there are opportunities for zip-lining, rock climbing, hiking, and various water sports. The town draws many tourists for weekend and even day trips, since Mexico City is only 156 km (97 mi) away.

Lago de Valle de Bravo

Thickly wooded hills backed by volcanos overlook the silvery lake. This little overlook provided a good vantage point for my photo. In the distance, the cone of an extinct volcano rises behind the hills along the far shore. Below the railing is a park, which includes a basketball court, a skateboard area, and a soccer field.

An unusual bronze sculpture decorates the malecon (lakefront). I don't know the name the artist gave to her/his creation, but I dubbed it "The Surfing Angel." He appears to be using a crescent moon for his surfboard. Just another of Mexico's many quirky artworks. In addition to its public art, Valle contains a variety of galleries aimed at the tastes of affluent visitors.

Jogger on the malecon. Behind him are some of the many restaurants that line the lakefront area. Tiers of homes and hotels rise up the hillside behind the restaurants. Behind me, as I took this shot, long ramps lead down to floating restaurants.

Evening view from the malecon. In the center of the photo are several large tour boats that have been converted into floating restaurants. I wanted to try one of them out, but it rained heavily that evening and we opted for a pizza delivery to our hotel room. Be advised that the meal prices on these boats are considerably higher than what you might pay for an equally good meal closer to the plaza.

Parque El Piño

A giant ahuehuete tree forms the center-piece Parque El Piño (Pine Park). The young couple obliged me with smiles when I asked for a photo. This 700 year-old ahuehuete is a member of the cypress family and is sometimes called a Montezuma Cypress or a Bald Cypress. The formal name is Taxodium mucronatum. It was sacred among various pre-hispanic cultures, including the Aztecs, and has been designated the National Tree of Mexico. This area had long been settled by the Matlazinca tribe when the Aztecs arrived in 1474 AD, led by their emperor Axayacatl. He spent the next five years conquering the region and it was the last great expansion of the Aztec Empire before it fell to the Spanish in 1521.

View from the Ahuehuete down the winding staircase of Parque El Piño. The park's vegetation was lovingly groomed and the whole place was immaculate. According to local legend, in 1530 a Franciscan friar named Gregorio Jiménez de la Cuenca founded Valle de Bravo's first Spanish settlement. He conducted the founding ceremony here, in the shade of this ancient Ahuehuete. A flat rock called the Founder's Stone marks the spot of the friar's ceremony. It is embedded in the pavement of one of the landings of this staircase.

Street Scenes

Looking down Calle Independencia to the Parroquia.Hotel Capilla, where we stayed, is located behind me about 1.5 blocks. Our hotel was comfortable and had an excellent, attentive staff and a very helpful manager who spoke flawless English. We were delighted to find an electronic, in-room safe where we could place our valuables when we went out to dinner on our first night. However, the next morning it refused to open! Since nearly all of our money, plus our passports, visas, drivers licenses, and even my camera were locked inside, this was a serious problem. Neither we, nor the hotel staff, could persuade the balky box to open. The hotel manager called his supervisor, who is based in Mexico City. His boss at first refused to authorize the hotel staff to cut through the safe's door. He even tried to place the blame on us for the failure of the safe's electronic mechanism. Eventually, around 4 PM, the big boss relented, although he threatened to charge us for the damage the cutting would cause to the safe. After further delays, the hotel maintenance man, assisted by the cook, managed to saw through the hinges and remove the door. We retrieved our valuables and, in the end, the big boss never followed through on his threat. The safe problem consumed nearly the whole day that we had planned to spend exploring Valle. That's why so many of these photos are afternoon or evening shots. I should say, though, that the on-site manager was extremely apologetic and told us that, in his opinion, we were in no way at fault for the breakdown of the safe.

Andador de las Ortigas is one of several pedestrian-only streets near the plaza. It was lined with impromptu restaurants and food carts. A little further on, the andador was crowded with the stalls of a street market where fresh fruits, vegetables, clothing, and minor household goods were sold. I always enjoy wandering through one of these street markets. They people are nearly alway friendly and open to being photographed, even without a purchase.

An old stone stairway leads up a callejon (alley) that connects two parallel streets. This one is called Callejon de la Machinhuepa. We saw several similar callejones as we strolled about town. They were built so that residents could access streets running parallel on different levels. This practice is very common in towns built on slopes and mountainsides.

Potted plants line the railing of a rustic balcony. There is almost nothing in this picture, other than a few plastic pots, that would surprise a 17th Century resident of Valle. Clay roof tiles date back to at least 10,000 BC during the Neolithic (New Stone Age) era. The awning supports, rafters and the door frame and lintel are formed from rough-cut tree trunks and branches. In the upper left corner of the photo, just under the awning, you can see adobe where the plaster has chipped away. Adobe is mud brick made from earth and straw and then dried in the sun. This building material has been used throughout the world beginning at least 8300 BC. Still, with all of its ancient appearance, I would not have been surprised to find someone on the balcony, texting on an iPhone.

Front door of a "branch" office? While walking up one of the narrow, cobblestone streets, we encountered this remarkable door. The establishment was closed, so I was unable to determine the nature of their enterprise. Given their door, I suspected they might be involved in the art business.

Neighborhood kids play a "pick-up" game of soccer on a field overlooking the lake. Soccer, or futbol as they call it, is enormously popular in Mexico as well as the rest of the world. Even the smallest kids can do some pretty fancy footwork.

The old and the new. My photographer's eye was drawn to this rustic single-story building. Adobe walls, tile roof, rough-cut wooden door lintels all clearly indicated an early colonial pedigree. It was not until I got home and downloaded my trip photos that I took a closer look. Propped on the left rear corner of the building is a 21st century satellite dish. Just another of the amazing juxtapositions to be found in Old Mexico.

A mother and her two kids cross a side street. This is a typical street in Valle, paved with stones and bordered by houses and stores rising no more than three stories. The color scheme is uniform: a rust-hued base with white up to the rafters. This uniformity is mandated by the requirements for Pueblo Magico status. This was one of the wider streets. Others barely have room to handle one car.

Another narrow street, with a different Restaurant La Michoacana. The evening sun lights up the sign while the rest of the street falls into shadow. Notice the Volkswagen parked up the street. "Beetles" have been enormously popular in Mexico, ever since the first ones were imported in 1954. In the mid-60s, Volkswagen began to produce them in Mexico and continued to do so until 2003. Considering the Mexican penchant for fixing things instead of discarding them, Beetles will maintain a presence on the streets here for a long time to come.

The Parroquia looms in the background as windows reflect the last glints of sunset. This street, Calle Pagoza, was filled with restaurants, boutique hotels, and small stores. Valle de Bravo is a very pleasant town to visit and I'd like to return to explore it a bit more some time. However, we had scheduled only two nights and a day, so it soon became time to move on to the next part of our adventure: the pre-hispanic ruins of Calitxlahuaca.

This completes my posting on Valle de Bravo. I hope you've enjoyed visiting this lovely little Magic Pueblo with us. Please leave any comments or questions in the Comments section below, or email them to me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Statue of Ehecatl, the Wind God, located in Calixtlahuaca's museum.Ehecatlis always portrayed wearing this odd beak-like attachment to his face. After leaving Valle de Bravo, it was less than an hour's drive to the site of Calixtlahuaca. The ancient site was once called Matlazinco by the Matlazinca tribe, whose capital it was before the Aztecs conquered the region in 1474 AD. The Aztecs' language was Nahuatl, and Calixtlahuaca means "house in the prairie". The town, which still carries the Aztec name, is today a small community located just off Highway 55, about 10 km (6.2 mi) north of the center of the city of Toluca, in the State of Mexico. Part of the pre-hispanic site is on flat ground, surrounded by the town's modern buildings. However, most of the ancient structures--including the Temple of Ehecatl--are located high up on the lightly-wooded slopes of a small volcano named Cerro Tenismo. For a Google satellite map, directions, and hours of operation, click here.

Temple of Ehecatl - exterior

Front view of Ehecatl's temple. After visiting an excellent (and free) museum at the base of Cerro Tenismo, we started up the slope to the temple. Part way up, we were met by an attendant who collected $50 pesos ($2.76 USD), which covered admittance to the whole site for both of us. In front of the temple is a flagstone patio, which leads to a grand staircase. The structure behind the staircase is circular, with a spiraling walkway that also leads to the top. On the left side of the staircase you can see a small entrance which allows access to the interior. The entire structure sits on a level platform, the size of a couple of football fields set end to end. The platform was carved from the side of the volcano and leveling it must have been a huge job. This is particularly true since pre-hispanic people lacked metal tools, draft animals, or vehicles to move the earth. The top of the temple provides a grand vista over the surrounding countryside.

The temple, as it was being unearthed in the 1930s. At the bottom of the staircase is a large cube-shaped structure with people on either side. This was the base for the statue of Ehecatl. Two smaller rectangular structures sit below the steps that lead to the grand staircase. It is not clear whether these were altars or possibly used as bases for two more statues. On the right of the photo, you can see the circular, stepped-platforms that make up the rear of the temple.

Cut-away model of the temple from the same angle as the previous photo. Like many other pre-hispanic temples and pyramids, Ehecatl's temple was built in stages. What we see today was the latest of four phases of construction. When modern engineers want to replace a building, they simply demolish it, haul away the debris, and put up something new. In ancient times, the effort, expense, and limited technology would have made this approach virtually impossible. Instead, pre-hispanic architects simply built a new structure over top of the old.

Temples to Ehecatl tended to follow the same general design. Above, you see four different temples from different geographic areas. The view is from directly overhead. The one at Calixtlahuaca is at the top left. The temple at Acozac is below it, and those at Huexotla and Zultepec are top right and bottom right, respectively. While we have not visited these last three yet, we have seen other temples to Ehecatl in distant parts of Mexico. These include the circular pyramids known as the Guachimontones, west of Guadalajara, and the spiral temple at Xochitécatl, north of Puebla.

View from the left rear. Here, you can clearly see the circular platforms and their spiraling walkway. In ancient times, the top level of the temple contained an additional cylindrical structure with a conical roof. However, this was made of perishable materials and did not survive the passage of the centuries. To the best of my knowledge, Ehecatl, whose name in Nahuatl means "wind", was the only pre-hispanic deity for whom circular temples or pyramids were constructed. Virtually all other sacred structures were built in a square or rectangular design with the four corners often aligned with the sacred cardinal points: north, south, east, and west. The wind, however, can come from any and all directions, so Ehecatl's temples were circular to reflect the variability of this natural force.

View of the right side of the temple. A series of small staircases lead up to a narrow entrance to the interior, seen in the center of the photo. There are several similar entrances around the base of the temple and on the spiral walkway, as you can see in the previous photo. Through these, priests could access the interior and conduct rituals kept secret from the mass of people who gathered around the temple during periodic public ceremonies.

Temple Interior

The front entrance on the left side of grand staircase. The bright overhead sun cast the interior into deep shadow, making me cautious as I descended. I didn't want to lose my footing or encounter any unseen critters. Neither occurred, however, and I moved unscathed through a series of dark stone corridors.

A narrow chimney leads up to daylight. At the end of one corridor, I suddenly stepped into a pool of light created by this vertical chimney. I say "chimney" but allowing smoke to escape was probably not its purpose. More likely, the shaft was for astronomical observations. I have found such chimneys in a number of other temples where Venus, or the moon, or the sun at a particular season could be viewed through the opening at the top. Using these observations, time cycles could be measured and predictions made for when to plant or harvest crops. A structure in the pre-hispanic Zapotec capital of Monte Alban contains a very similar shaft once used by ancient priests to observe Venus' movements.

A steep internal staircase leads up from the bowels of the temple to its top. After conducting their observations and secret rituals, the religious leaders could proceed up these steps and suddenly emerge high above the waiting crowd. It must have been a dramatic moment, accompanied by thundering drums and the mournful wail of conch shells. The climb up this staircase looked pretty tricky, in that each step is only a few inches deep and the incline is very steep. Since there was a safer way to the top, I decided not to risk it.

Top of Temple

A stone walkway spirals around the sides of the temple. Portions of it are now blocked, so it was impossible for me to reach the top using this route. Apparently the ancients used it as one route for ascending or descending the temple. A long procession of priests and other high officials, gorgeously adorned with feathered head dresses and jaguar skins, must have been quite a sight as it wound around the temple's circular walls during one of these great ceremonies. On the sides of the wall to the left, you can see several stone projections. In another area of Calixtlahuaca, and at other sites around Mexico, similar projections were used as supports for decorative elements. Beyond the walkway's outer wall, you can see one of several altars that surround the temple.

The flat top of the temple can be reached over this small footbridge. After climbing the grand staircase, I reached this footbridge spanning the spiral walkway. The view from the top encompasses the town and valley and the mountains in the distance. The temple's flat top once contained a cylindrical structure with a conical roof, constructed from perishable materials.

The interior staircase, viewed from the top. The small opening in the lower right is the entrance on the right side of the temple, seen in one of the previous photos. The shallow depth of each step can clearly be seen here. After completing their rituals, the priests would have ascended the staircase and come up within the perishable structure. They would then appear in its doorway to address the crowd below. It is my conjecture that they would have ascended, rather than descended. Based on my rock-climbing experience, it is nearly always easier and safer to ascend a steep, treacherous incline than to climb down it. After emerging at the top, they may have proceeded down the grand staircase, or by way of the spiral walkway, or possibly both at the same time.

Ehecatl and Quetzalcoatl

Full view of Ehecatl, located in the Calixtlahuaca museum. Ehecatl is closely connected to Tlaloc, the Rain God, because strong, spiraling winds often precede a downpour. Ehecatl wears the unusual beak to cut through any obstacle on his way to join Tlaloc. The Wind God is one of the most ancient deities of Mesoamerican cultures and civilizations. The temple dedicated to him at Xochitécatl dates back as far as 800 BC. Over the centuries, Ehecatl became associated with Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent, another important and widely revered god. One possible connection between them was the snake symbolism the two deities shared. Among the later Mesoamerican civilizations, the Wind God is referred to as Ehecatl-Quetzalcoatl. The Aztecs built a circular temple for the double-god in the Sacred Precinct in their capital of Tenochtitlán. According to the Aztec cosmology, the Sacred Precinct was located at the center of the world and only the most important among their plentiful array of gods were assigned space there.

Ehecatl's statue was unearthed near the left side of the grand staircase. His "beak" can be seen at the upper end of the trench above, shaped like the bottom of a clothing iron. The statue had once stood on the cube-shaped platform at the base of the grand staircase. The Aztecs destroyed the Matlazinca's capital in 1510 after a revolt by its inhabitants. The Matlazincas fled to the territory of the Aztec's great rival, the Tarascans, where they settled in the area of what is now modern Morelia. The Aztecs resettled the Matlazincas' former territory with their own people and then rebuilt the city as Calixtlahuaca. In the process, they completed the final phase of the Temple of Ehecatl, and added the statue you see above. A little more than ten years later, the Spanish cast down the statue and destroyed the temple during their Conquest. It was Spanish policy to destroy native religions by destroying their temples. Sometimes they used the rubble to build a churches on the same spot, but in the case of Ehecatl's temple, they simply left it in ruins.

Workers have extracted most of the dismembered statue and are still digging for broken pieces. In the 1930s, Mexican archaeologist José Garcia Payón began to excavate ancient Calixtlahuaca. In the process, he uncovered and restored Templo Ehecatl and the palace area at the base of Cerro Tenismo. His workers discovered the statue when they saw a lizard run between two rocks. Payón was not present when the discovery occurred, which greatly annoyed him. Between 1988 and 2007, a series of other archaeologists made further discoveries including a temple complex dedicated to Tlaloc, located near the top of the volcano. We'll take a look at the Tlaloc complex and the palace area in later parts of this series.

This small, unidentified statue appears to depict Ehecatl. The figure is seated on a stepped throne and wears the strange beak associated with the Wind God. A writhing snake forms part of his head dress. In addition to snakes, there is another similarity between Ehecatl and Quetzalcoatl. Both are "culture heroes" as well as gods. A culture hero is person of great--and sometimes magical--power who acts as a leader, but is not a god. A familiar example is Hercules in the mythology of the ancient Greeks. In another wrinkle, some archaeologists believe that the culture heroes Ehecatl and Quetzalcoatl, may reflect greatly embellished stories about actual historical figures. Gods? Culture heroes? Actual people? All at the same time? This can be a bit confusing when studying Mesoamerican myths and legends.

This stela, containing a snake emblem, stands in the patio near the base of the grand staircase. While most of the carving on the stela is badly worn, the coiled snake on the left is clearly visible. The coil may represent not only Ehecatl's snake manifestation, but the spiral of the temple itself, thus making the very architecture of the structure a metaphor for a snake. Just as Ehecatl was a very ancient god, so was Quetzalcoatl. Representations of the Feathered Serpent have been associated with the Olmecs (1500 BC - 400 BC), known as the "Mother of Cultures." Later, the great empire of Teotihuacan (100 BC - 650 AD) revered Quetzalcoatl, as did their successors, the Toltecs (700 AD - 1000 AD). Each of these great civilizations maintained extensive trade networks through which the cult of the Feathered Serpent spread.

This statue of a feathered snake shows a human head emerging from its gaping jaws. The statue, located in the Calixtlahuaca museum, presents an image that is found throughout Mesoamerica, even down into the Maya areas of Yucatan and Central America. Quetzalcoatl is associated with knowledge, culture, civilization, and the use of maiz (corn). The image of a human emerging from a snake's mouth represents the Feathered Serpent's role as the creator of human beings.

Temple Altars

This square altar can be found on the side of the temple that overlooks the town. It is not clear what was sacrificed on altars like this, but it could well have included human beings, particularly in the period of Aztec rule. Quetzalcoatl was said to disapprove of human sacrifice, Ehecatl's position on the matter is unclear. The Aztecs were cultural sponges, somewhat like the Romans, and avidly adopted the culture, and cosmology of the people they conquered. They mixed and matched to create their own culture and cosmology (and, for political purposes, deliberately fabricated a good deal of their official history).

A circular altar, set in a small sunken area adjacent to the temple. According to early Aztec legends, they originated on an island (possibly Mexicaltitan) from which they began a meandering, 200-year migration. Their journey finally ended in the Valley of Mexico where they settled on another island in a broad shallow lake called Texcoco. There, they built their capital, Tenochtitlán (now Mexico City). During their journey, they came upon the crumbling ruins of Tula, the Toltec capital, and later the abandoned but still overpowering site of Teotihuacan. The magnificent remains of these half-forgotten civilizations had a tremendous impact on these primitive. nomadic people. The Aztecs called Teotihuacan "the place where the gods were born". Imitation is said to be the sincerest form of flattery. The Aztecs adopted what they found, almost wholesale, including the worship of Quetzalcoatl.

Another sunken altar, near the edge of the great platform on which the temple stands. When the Aztecs encountered the extensive sculptures of Quetzalcoatl in the ruins of the ancient cities, they saw the similarities with Ehecatl. Over time, the Feathered Serpent came to predominate until Ehecatl lost his separate identity and became simply a facet, or manifestation, of Quetzalcoatl. When they conquered the Matlazinca capital, with its temple to Ehecatl, they simply subsumed him into their broader deity of Ehecatl-Quetzalcoatl.

This completes Part 1 of my series on Calixtlahuaca. In the next part, we'll explore the temple complex devoted to Tlaloc, the Rain God. I hope you have enjoyed Part 1. If so, please leave any of your thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email them to me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

One of the rooms in the Palace Complex, with an impressive platform in the background. In front of the large platform, you can see part of the Palace Complex's broad, grassy plaza. This complex is one of a number of ruins scattered across the slopes of Cerro Tenismo, the small, extinct volcano on which ancient Calixtlahuaca was built. Because of our limited time, and the distance between the sites, we only visited the three most important, including the Temple of Ehecatl (see Part 1), the Tlaloc Complex, and the Palace. One of Calixtlahuaca's unique features is that these ceremonial structures are all so scattered. In other Mesoamerican cities, these kinds of structures are grouped together centrally into a single elite district. Archaeologists were also surprised that they could find almost no buildings or artifacts beyond the base of the volcano. At Calixtlahuaca, both the ceremonial and the residential areas were built on terraced platforms cut into the slopes of Cerro Tenismo, rather than on the flatter land that surrounds the hill. By contrast, the Spanish colonial town of Calixlahuaca was built on the flat lands below the hill, long after the abandonment of the ancient city.

Monument 4: The Tlaloc Temple Complex

The Tlaloc Complex includes three structures: a temple, a low platform, and a tzompantli. José Garcia Payón was the archaeologist who originally unearthed ancient Calixtlahuaca. The Tlaloc Complex was one of his primary areas of excavation. He associated the temple (left side of photo) with Tlaloc, the Rain God, because he found several statues of the god on or around the structure. All three structures of the complex are arranged around a stone patio. The entire complex rests on a broad, man-made terrace cut from the side of Cerro Tenismo. The Tlaloc Complex is oriented to the four cardinal directions (north, south, east, west), considered sacred as far back as the time of the Olmecs.

Censer decorated with the face of Tlaloc. Many Mesoamericans cultures used containers called censers to burn copal incense during religious ceremonies. The Tlaloc statues Payón found are not kept in the site museum, and I have been unable to find any photos of them on the internet. In order to give you an idea of how the ancients viewed their Rain God, I am using a photo I took of a censer unearthed at the great Aztec pyramid called the Templo Mayor, in Mexico City. The "goggles" around Tlaloc's eyes are his most typical and distinctive feature. In addition, he is almost always shown with fangs hanging down from both corners of his mouth, with his tongue drooping between them. Tlaloc was one of the most important of all the many gods of the various Mesoamerican civilizations. This is not surprising, since all these societies were dependent upon agriculture, for which rain is always the critical element. He was so important to the Aztecs that they gave him equal billing, along with their War God Huitzilopochtli. Temples devoted to both gods sit side-by-side atop the Templo Mayor, a pyramid that marked the center of their world.

The Tlaloc Temple The temple's only staircase is located on its east side. At one time, the temple was topped by a structure made of perishable materials, which did not survive the centuries. Tlaloc ruled over the four sacred directions and he occupied a position in the center where the directional lines cross. The Rain God, called by various names over the centuries, is one of the most ancient Mesoamerican deities, probably dating to the birth of New World agriculture. The only god to exceed him in antiquity would have been the God of Fire, Huehueteotl, the "Old, Old God". Human awareness of the mystery, power, and usefulness of fire, as well as its dangers, long pre-dates agriculture.

Two small, square structures stand on either side of the staircase. They are each about 1 m sq (3' x 3') and about .3 m (1 ft) tall. Their function is not clear, but they may have been bases for statues or perhaps sacrificial altars. Tlaloc was married to Chalchiuhtlicue, the beautiful Goddess of Lakes and Streams. The Rain God was assisted by four helpers, called Tlaloque, who were dwarf-like beings. One of their key jobs was to smash great clay urns full of water, thus creating thunder as the rain was released. Tlaloc was closely associated with Ehecatl, the Wind God. Since strong, gusty winds often precede a rainstorm, the ancient people believed the rain was being pushed by the Wind God.

The north side of the Tlaloc Complex plaza is filled by a low platform. A sign at the site says that it probably served as the base for four rooms, but the purpose of these rooms is unclear. They might have housed priests of Tlaloc, or they could have provided space for materials and devices employed during ceremonies, or possibly both. The faint outline of a circle on the grassy surface may be the remains of an ancient ceremonial fire pit.

A unique cruciform (cross shaped) structure sits directly to the east of the Tlaloc Temple. Nothing else like it is known to exist in Mesoamerica. It is draped with yellow tape to warn visitors not to climb on it. Archaeologists disagree on the structure's purpose. Payón, the site's discoverer, believed that this was a tzompantli, or skull rack, used to to display the decapitated heads of sacrificial victims. To support his view, Payón pointed to a series of stone projections set at regular intervals around the sides. Four of these projections still have carved stone skulls attached to them. Similar stone skulls are found on the tzompantli adjacent to the Templo Mayor, as well as the one at Chichen Itza near the great ball court. Other archaeologists assert that this may be a site for fertility rites where a pregnant woman would lie with her head in the circular area with her arms outstretched on either side. However, the skulls attached to the sides, along with the well-known association between human sacrifice and Tlaloc, incline me toward the tzompantli theory. Even the proponents of the fertility theory admit that a person positioned as they describe would also have been ideally placed to have his/her heart cut out.

Monument 17: The Palace Complex

The Palace Complex, as displayed on a site marker. The Palace Complex was organized as a long rectangle around a large central plaza. A warren of residential rooms occupies one end, with a long, high platform along one side and several low platforms on the other. The design above shows structures at the end opposite the residential area that are now gone or possibly not yet excavated.

View of the Palace Complex from the top of the Tlaloc Temple. I took this shot with my telephoto zoom, so it is further away from the Tlaloc Complex than it appears here. Modern Calixtlahuaca structures surround the Palace site. Payón believed that this complex was acalmecac, or elite school which provided religious and military training to the sons of Aztec nobles. Further investigations by later archaeologists revealed the site to be a palace, probably of the ruler of Calixtlahuaca. They drew this conclusion, in part, because it closely resembles palaces in other parts of the Aztec Empire. For a Google satellite view of the Palace Complex, click here.

View of the Palace Complex from the left rear, near the residential area. In the upper right of the photo you can see the long, high platform with three grand staircases leading to its top. Archaeologists believe that the top was once occupied by the ruler's throne room. The area immediately behind the maguey plant in the foreground contains large rooms and low platforms that were probably the ruler's living area.

View from atop the throne room platform. This shot looks directly back to where the previous photo was taken.The long platform's grand staircase is in the immediate foreground. Below, you can see the broad plaza which contains a large altar at one end. Behind the altar is the residential area. Part of the ruler's living area can be seen in the upper right. In the upper left, you can see the rising slope of the Cerro Tenismo volcano.

Close-up of the altar in front of the residential area. This one is considerably larger than any of the altars we saw at the Ehecatl or Tlaloc temples. The size of the plaza indicates that a large number of people could be assembled here for religious activities. An altar like this would surely have been a focal point for ceremonies.

One of the low platforms across from the temple that were part of the ruler's area. These platforms may have contained perishable structures used for ceremonial or residential purposes. Carole is standing on a slight rise behind the platform. The platform above has particularly interesting architectural features on either end of the stairs

This tabla y talud shows a definite Teotihuacan influence. In Spanish, tabla y talud, means "panel and slope". The upper part is the tabla and the lower, sloping area is the talud. This architectural feature was widely employed throughout the Teotihuacan Empire (100 AD - 650 AD). The ruins of its capital are located a few miles to the northeast of Mexico City. Teotihuacan exerted a strong influence over the area around Calixtlahuaca during the Classic Era, 800 years before the Aztecs arrived in the Valley of Mexico. Either this staircase is a remnant of that earlier Empire, or the Aztecs copied the Teotihuacan style when they re-built the Palace after conquering the previous inhabitants. The Aztecs admired everything about Teotihuacan, believing it was "where the gods were born". They imitated many of the artistic and architectural features they found in the ancient city, even though it had been in ruins for many centuries.

View of the residential area from the right rear. This area is a maze of narrow corridors and rooms of various sizes. Some of these rooms were the residences of nobles and warriors, while others were used to store food, weapons, and treasure. Still others were workshops for the production of sculpture, feather art and other luxury items desired by the ruler and his court. A few rooms contained shrines for rituals.

Flagstone covers the floors in some of the rooms. These were the luxury apartments of their day, and thus the floors would not have been the packed earth found in commoners' homes. Notice the niche seat in the upper right of the photo. The thick stone walls would have kept the rooms cool in summer and warm in winter.

Stucco made from lime plaster surfaced other floors in the complex. The stucco was produced by burning limestone, grinding up the resulting material, and then mixing it with water and sand. The Aztecs and other ancient Mesoamerican civilizations also used stucco to coat both the interior and exterior walls of stone buildings. The flat surfaces were then painted with vividly colored designs. Often, the need for massive amounts of wood to burn the limestone resulted in deforestation. This caused droughts and may have contributed in the decline of civilizations such as Teotihuacan and the Maya city states of the Classic Era.

One of the larger rooms in the residential area contained this square fire pit. This fire pit is similar to many found in the residential rooms. Archaeologists found charcoal remains in many of the pits. In addition to heating and cooking, the fire pits may have played a role in rituals conducted in some of the rooms.

This concludes Part 2 of my series on Calixtlahuaca. In Part 3, I will show you some of the artifacts found at the various sites and some of the history of the area from the early nomadic period to the arrival of the Spanish. If you enjoyed Part 2, and would like to leave a comment or question, please do so in the Comments section below, or email me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE provide your email address so I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Xiuhtecuhtli, Lord of Fire and Volcanos. He is the Aztec version of Huehueteotl ("Old, Old God"), who had been revered throughout Mesoamerica from to the earliest times. Xiuhtecuhtli sits, with his arms crossed. He wears a head dress which includes projections beside his ears and a head band decorated with circular emblems. These elements are typical of how the Aztecs portrayed their Fire God. Control of fire was one of the earliest and most important human innovations, occurring long before the development of agriculture. Ancient people quickly discovered the many uses of fire. These included cooking, lighting, heating, protection against predators, and the production of tools and weapons. However, it could also be a dangerous force, if not respected. Its most awesome form appears during volcanic eruptions. Some of the earliest statues of the Fire God yet unearthed were recovered from the ancient city of Cuicuilco (700 BC - 150 BC). Apparently, the inhabitants lacked sufficient reverence, because Cuicuilco's final destruction occurred when the nearby Ixle volcano erupted.

This is the third and final part of my Calixtlahuaca series. In it, I will provide information about the archaeological site's museum artifacts and will also trace the region's history from the earliest times to the Spanish arrival.

Other ancient religious images

Chicometeotl, Goddess of Maiz, wearing a huge and elaborate head dress.Chicometeotl's head dress, when she was portrayed in religious celebrations, would have been made of sticks covered with amacalli, a paper the Aztecs made from the bark of the amate tree. She was the "goddess of the unripe maiz" (corn) and was believed to make the kernels turn into thriving plants. In line with the Mesoamerican concept of duality, she had a male counterpart named Centeotl who represented the harvested maiz.

The first evidence of agricultural settlements around Calixtlahuaca dates to 1200 BC, although hunter-gatherer nomads had roamed the area for thousands of years previous to that. The people lived in small communities around the volcanic slopes of the small, extinct Cerro Tenismo, located about 2 km from modern Toluca. They supplemented their agricultural production with hunting and fishing. Their homes were made of perishable materials, but they did make decorated pottery, as well as small, clay, female figures. These may have represented a fertility goddess, perhaps an early version of Chicometeotl. These settlements were contemporaneous with the Olmec Civilization (1500 BC - 400 BC). Archaeologists have found a number of Olmec-style sculptures in the area, including chubby children with jaguar faces. These artifacts may indicate a trading relationship with the Olmec centers along the Gulf Coast, or possibly an actual Olmec presence. During the succeeding 2700 years, long-range trading networks were established that continued to function, up through the Spanish era. Some of the old trade routes have survived as 21st century roads.

Cihuateteo the divine spirit of women who have died in childbirth. This statue was found in the area of the tzompantli (skull rack) in the Tlaloc Complex seen Part 2 of this series. Its discovery helped trigger speculation that the structure was not a tzompantli at all but an altar dedicated to childbirth and fertility. The Aztecs considered childbirth the equivalent of battle and a woman's death in childbirth was honored as much as the battle death of a warrior. A woman who died in this way became a Cihuateteo, a divine spirit. While dead warriors accompanied the sun from its rise until mid-day, at noon the Cihuateteo took over the escort through sunset. These divine female spirits were sometimes considered dangerous because they lurked at crossroads to steal children and seduce men into adultery.

For several hundred years after the Olmec Civilization disappeared, no other great civilization dominated the area. Then, around 100 AD, in the area northeast of modern Mexico City, Teotihuacan arose. Its appearance launched the pre-hispanic period's Classic Era. Like the Olmecs, Teotihuacan was a great trading civilization. Its capital city was very cosmopolitan and eventually reached 200,000 inhabitants, larger than any European city of its time. Teotihuacan became the dominant force, economically and militarily, throughout Mesoamerica. During the Classic Era, groups from Teotihuacan arrived in the Valley of Toluca. Vases, figurines, and sculptures in the Teotihuacan style begin to appear during this time, some possibly made locally. Before long, trade items that were definitely made in Teotihuacan began to arrive, including pottery, ceramics, and obsidian tools and jewelry. In return, the local people sent corn, lime, wood, and the products of the lakes and forests to Teotihuacan. The earliest phases of the Calixtlahuaca's Palace, the Tlaloc Complex, and the Temple of Ehecatl were built on the slopes of Cerro Tenismo in the Teotihuacan fashion.

Sacrificial altar covered with Aztec designs, from the Temple of Ehecatl. This altar was found at the base of the temple by Calixtlahuaca's first archaeologist, José Garcia Payón. He inferred from its upside-down position and proximity to the temple that the altar had originally sat atop the temple. Apparently it had been cast down by the Spanish when they took over the area and suppressed "devil worship". My friend Javier Urcid teaches archaeology at Brandeis University and his specialty is the interpretation of stone relief carvings. I asked him to decypher the altar markings for me. According to Javier, the altar "dates to the 15th or early 16th century AD. It is carved in the Aztec imperial style when the Mexica (Aztecs) had political control of Calixtlahuaca...the monument may have originally been a circular platform for placing offerings and perhaps used as a sacrificial stone...the carvings on the monument include the iconic representations of a jade bead...These generally conveyed the notion of preciousness." Thanks again Javier!

Approximately 650 AD, the Teotihuacan Empire suddenly collapsed, possibly due to an internal revolt related to crop failures triggered by droughts which were, in turn, caused by deforestation. The period that followed, called the Epi-Classic Era (650 AD - 900 AD), is roughly equivalent to Dark Age Europe after the Roman Empire collapsed in the face of internal strife and external invasions. One effect of Teotihuacan's collapse was the dispersal of the huge city's population throughout the Valley of Mexico and beyond. A substantial number of these refugees settled on the slopes of Cerro Tenismo. Archaeologists digging on Cerro Tenismo have found double the number of Teotihuacan artifacts during the Epi-Classic compared to the Classic Era. Another effect of the collapse was a power vacuum into which tribes of fierce nomadic warriors from the north--the so-called Chichimecs--surged into the fallen empire's territory. The Matlazinca were one of these tribes and they took over the central part of the Toluca Valley, including the Teotihuacan town located on Cerro Tenismo. It eventually became their capital. The newcomers utilized the structures already there, sometimes building new temples over the old Teotihuacan versions. The Matlazinca town came to be known as Matlazinco, a name that it kept until the Aztecs destroyed it in the 15th century and built Calixtlahuaca atop of its ruins.

Relief carving of the Calixtlahuaca Bird. Even though the carving is worn, you can clearly see the two feet with curled talons at the bottom. The tail extends to the left and the head is at the upper right. Arizona University archaeologist Michael Smith has dubbed this the "Calixtlahuaca Bird". The same bird figure has been found in other sculptures, leading to speculation that it may be the sign, or totem of the city.

During the Epi-Classic Era, after a period of consolidation, Matlazinco and other up-and-coming city-states began to compete, both in trade and war. Existing Mesoamerican communities, along with others established by new arrivals, began to fortify themselves against further waves of barbarians. They also began to expand their economic spheres of influence by dominating key trade routes. Cacaxtla, in Tlaxcala State, north of modern Puebla, was a contemporary of Matlazinco. A mural at Cacaxtla shows a ferocious battle typical of the conflicts of the time. When the rising city-states weren't warring with one another, they were actively trading. Another Cacaxtla mural, painted in the Maya style, portrays a trader with his pack of goods propped up behind him. Archaeologist Michael Coe* believes this figure may be the Maya god L (Ek Chuah), the patron of merchant-traders. Along with other murals at Cacaxtla showing Maya influence, Coe believes the trader image indicates that group of Puuc Maya from Yucatan and the southern Gulf Coast were penetrating the former Teotihuacan Empire's territory from the south, even as the Chichimecs moved down from the north.

*See Michael D Coe, Mexico, From the Olmecs to the Aztecs.

Artist's rendering of the Bird of Calixtlahuaca from the relief carving. This bird symbol also appears in other carvings on the shields of warriors. Michael Smith speculates that the bird may be a North American turkey, one of the few animals domesticated by pre-hispanic people. The recurrent appearance of this symbol may indicate that it represents the ruling dynasty. This could possibly be one of the earliest references to political figures as "turkeys."

By the end of the Epi-Classic period (900 AD), the invasions had tapered off and strong, militarized city-states like Matlazinco and Cacaxtla dotted the map of Mesoamerica. Perhaps the most important was Tollan, (Tula, in modern Hidalgo State). Tollan was the capital of the Toltecs, an amalagam of Chichimecs and refugees from Teotihuacan who had settled in the area north of modern Mexico City around 700 AD. In an era when war and human sacrifice were glorified, the Toltecs stood out. They were the Spartans of their time, extremely militarized and aggressive. The Toltecs may have been among the earliest to employ the tzompantli, a skull rack used to display the heads of decapitated war prisoners. By 900 AD, they were strong enough to begin the conquest of surrounding areas. Within 200 years,, the Toltecs had become the strongest kingdom to emerge out of the old Teotihuacan Empire. They dominated a widespread trade network and Toltec artifacts and architecture began to appear in Matlazinco.

The city market may have been located on the lower slope of Cerro Tenismo. Just as they do in modern Mexican towns, local vendors and traders from distant places would come to a market like this and set up stalls to display their goods. Markets like this were an extremely important part of Mesoamerican economic life and were the channel through which both goods and culture spread. On the slopes above the market, you can see homes, temples, and public structures on terraces carved into the side of the volcano. (Artist Michael Stesinos' conception of the market, based on the work of the Calixtlahuaca Archaeological Project of Arizona State University)

The Toltec kingdom fell somewhere around 1175 AD, for reasons that are not entirely clear. Instabiliity caused by leadership divisions among Toltec elites may have been a factor. Revolts by subject cities against tribute collection may have played a role. Finally, prolonged droughts in north-central Mexico about this time provoked a southward movement of nomadic groups into better-watered areas. This caused constant military pressure on the northern frontiers. Tollan's ultimate fall created a power vacuum which accelerated migrations by the fierce northern nomads, hungry for land and plunder. Among these groups were the Aztecs, or Mexica as they called themselves. According to their migration legend, they set out from Aztlán, a place that some believe is the island community of Mexicaltitán in the modern state of Nayarit. For over a hundred years the Mexica wandered, stopping along the way at the ruins of Tollan and the even more ancient Teotihuacan. The great and mysterious palaces and pyramids were crumbling and overgrown by then. Even so, the nomadic wanderers were suitably impressed, particularly by Teotihuacan (which they mistook for a Toltec city). The Mexica called it "the place where the gods were born." Eventually the tribe reached Lake Texcoco, a lush paradise that was, unfortunately for the newcomers, already surrounded by powerful and well-established city states.

Daily Living at Matlazinco / Calixtlahuaca

Typical home as it may have looked on the slopes of ancient Matlazinco. The house is of the mud-and-wattle adobe style with a thatched roof. It is typical of those used in the residential areas by common people. In front of the house, a man works on an obsidian "core" to produce tools, blades, or weapons while his son looks on. A core is a chunk of obsidian about the size of a softball from which large flakes are chipped to create razor-sharp implements. Interestingly, more than 2/3 of the obsidian implements found on or around Cerro Tenismo originated elsewhere. Archaeologists know this because they can determine, from the chemical structure, the exact origin point of the volcanic glass. This means traders may have brought finished tools to Matlazinco. Three quarters of these artifacts were of gray obsidian and 56% of these originated in Ucareo, Michoacan, indicating a lively trade with the Tarascan Empire. A small amount of green obsidian came from Pachuca, north of Mexico City. Traders may also have brought the cores and created the implements on site, or sold the cores to local people like the man above. (Illustration by Michael Stasinos of the Calixtlahuaca Archaeological Project)

The Mexica were despised as uncouth barbarians by the settled and civilized people. At first, they drifted around the Lake Texcoco area, hiring themselves out as mercenaries in the incessant wars between the lakeside city-states. Eventually, the tribe settled on a swampy island off the southwestern shore of the lake, where they founded their capital, Tenochtitlán. The traditional date for this is 1325 AD. Desperate to shed their image of low-life country bumpkins, they adopted the culture, symbols, and art of the now-semi-mythical Toltecs. Most importantly, the Mexica imitated the Toltec's militarized social structure, which fitted nicely with their own fierce warrior culture. Over the next 150 years, their rise to power was meteoric.

A tripod bowl, in the Matlazinca style. The Matlazinca design can be seen in the network of straight and diagonal lines on the interior and exterior surfaces, as well as the red-over-cream color scheme. Most of the intact objects recovered by archaeologists at Calixtlahuaca, or anywhere else in Mesoamerica for that matter, have come from tombs and burial sites. These "grave goods" were carefully and reverently placed in these tombs, which were then covered over and mostly forgotten for centuries or even thousands of years. Unfortunately, intact pottery and sculpture have become highly valued by private collectors, resulting in large-scale grave robbery. Often, artifacts considered less valuable are discarded or destroyed. Even if the best pieces survive, the destruction of the context in which they were discovered is usually lost. Context is extremely important in understanding ancient cultures. It relates to the position of the object when found in relation to other artifacts or structures. Understanding these relationships can help decipher the use or meaning of the piece. The stratum or depth at which the discovery occurred can affect its dating. When the artifact is removed or destroyed without proper documentation, all this is lost. Mexico has strict laws about the handling of ancient artifacts, but all too often these or ignored or circumvented. The often desperately poor people who do the actual looting are less guilty than the wealthy Mexican or foreign collectors who are looking for attractive additions to their mantlepieces.

A Matlazinca pot with a small handle near the lip. The pot, about the size of a basketball, may have been intended to hold water, or to store food. I was struck by its resemblance to an ancient Greek amphora. I am often bemused by the similarity between widely separated cultures in the shapes of the objects and structures they create. For example, there is a close resemblance between Mesoamerican step pyramids and those of early Egypt. Contact between the societies was extremely unlikely, although some folks fantasize that it may have happened. The answer to the mystery is likely to be much simpler: first, form follows function. Second, there are general principles of physics and engineering that apply, no matter where you are or what you are trying to build. Ancient people were no less intelligent that those living today. Through trial and error, people separated by vast distances, even oceans, came to similar solutions when faced with similar problems.

In 1428, the Mexicas joined with the kingdoms of Texcoco and Tacuba to form the Triple Alliance. This powerful federation began a campaign of conquest which ultimately brought much of Mesoamerica under its control, with the exception of the Chichimecs to the north, the Maya kingdoms of the south, and the Tarascan Empire to the west. For almost 50 years after the Triple Alliance began its program of conquest, Matlazinco maintained its independence and flourished. The city carried on a lively trade with surrounding areas, including both the kingdoms of the Triple Alliance and their bitter rival, the Tarascan Empire. The Tarascans dominated the territory of modern Michoacan State, plus portions of Guerrero, Colima, Querétaro, and Jalisco. The politics of pre-hispanic Mesoamerica were complex, but it appears that the Matlazincas may have staved off both of the empires by playing them off against each other.

This small, graceful pitcher looks quite modern. I could easily envision this on my kitchen counter, or in my refrigerator. Long ago, someone decided to create a container shaped for pouring liquids. S/he came up with this solution and modern people are still using it.

The Matlazinca, as previously noted, acquired most of their obsidian for tools, weapons, and jewelry from the volcanic glass deposits around Ucareo, in Tarascan territory. Other Tarascan imports included copper objects, such as bells and small tools. In turn, the Matlazincas provided the Tarascans with corn from their famously rich farm lands. It was the desire to acquire the food from these lands, as well as jealously over the Matlazinca-Tarascan relationship, that led Axayacatl, the Mexica Tlatoani (ruler), to provoke a war against the Matlazinca. The pretext was a failure to provide materials for a temple the Mexica wanted to build. At first the Matlazinca were able to stave off the invasion. One of their generals, Cuextapalin, managed to wound the Mexica ruler with a stone from a sling and almost captured him. Axayacatl withdrew, but the Mexica never gave up easily and he soon returned with an even larger army.

Some smaller artifacts recovered include shell jewelry, copper rings, and clay malacates. The shells probably came from the Pacific Coasts of Guerrero and Michoacan, both under Tarascan control. It is likely that the copper rings also originated within the Tarascan territory. Malacates are called whorls in English, and they are used in spinning fibers, such as cotton, into thread. Even though they are an ancient technology, I have seen them used in the remote mountain villages of Puebla State.

Axacayatl came back in 1474, intent on completing the conquest and avenging his previous loss. He may have had personal motives as well, since the wound he had received from the Matlazinca general crippled him for life. This time he was successful, and took 11,070 prisoners when he seized the city of Matlazinco. These unfortunates were marched to Tenochtitlán to be sacrificed in a grand celebration of his victory. Executing all those Matlazinca warriors also prevented further uprisings for the moment and opened up their lands for resettlement by people from the Triple Alliance. While the Matlazinca chafed under Mexica rule, they also prospered because trade with the far-flung Triple Alliance Empire (which had become the Mexica Empire by now) radically increased. Mexica demands for tribute, as well as their general arrogance, led to two great uprisings by the Matlazinca. The first lasted from 1482 to 1484 and was finally crushed by the Mexica ruler Tizoc. He marked his victory on a great stone disk used for human sacrifice. In retaliation for the revolt, Tizoc ordered the temples in Matlazinco destroyed, as well as the usual sacrifice of war prisoners. Another influx of Mexica settlers arrived, further changing the character of the city.

Malacate, with its spindle and thread. Mesoamerican weaving dates back as far as 3000 BC. Use of a backstrap loom began in South American around 1800 BC and soon the technique migrated north to Mexico. Indigenous women still use the backstrap loom in many places in Mexico, including the pueblo of Ajijic, where I live. In ancient times, spinning thread and weaving cloth was a woman's task and, at birth, a female child would be presented with the tools seen above. Even today, every person I have seen using a malacate and spindle, or a backstrap loom, has been a woman.

After another Matlazinca revolt in 1510, the Mexica ruler Moctezuma II finally lost patience. He ordered the general destruction of Matlazinco and its rebuilding into a Mexica-style city, populated by Mexica settlers and re-named Calixtlahuaca. The Matlazincas fled west and were given asylum by the Tarascan ruler. They were resettled where they could act as a buffer between his kingdom and the Mexica. Calixtlahuaca soon became the third largest city in the whole Empire. Then, less than 10 years after the final defeat of the Matlazinca, the Spanish arrived. Soon the Mexica Empire was itself overthrown and in ruins. Unlike many other large Mexica cities, Calixtlahuaca was never settled by the Spanish and remodeled in their own style. Within a generation after the Conquest, Calixtlahuaca was an unpopulated ruin. What happened to its population is somewhat of a mystery. Archaeologist Michael Smith speculates that the inhabitants were victims of the Spanish policy of "congregation". This was a technique for political control that involved the displacement of a native population and its resettlement in another area. The modern city of Toluca may be where the Calixtlahuacans ended up, but the old records have disappeared so no one knows for sure. The Spanish colonial town of San Francisco Calixtlahuaca was founded many years after the depopulation of the old city and it was built on the plains below Cerro Tenismo, not on its slopes.

This completes the last part of my Calixtlahuaca series. I hope you have enjoyed it and, if so, that you leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email them to me directly. If you leave a question, PLEASE provide your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Parroquia Santa Prisca is surrounded by one of Mexico's most charming colonial towns. Santa Prisca was constructed in the 18th century by an eccentric silver baron who nearly went broke building and decorating the spectacular church. After our visit to the ancient ruins of Calixtlahuaca (see previous 3 postings) Carole and I headed south from Toluca to Taxco, in the State of Guerrero. Most of this route can be driven on one of Mexico's fine cuotas (toll roads). When traveling long distances by auto, we nearly always use a cuota when we can. These high-speed, usually 4-lane, divided highways are nearly always smooth and well-maintained. Because of the tolls, traffic tends to be light. For hassle-free, long-range driving in Mexico, cuotas can't be beat.

A deep canyon cuts through the mountains of northern Guerrero. For the first hour of our 3-hour drive, we passed through the lush green farmland of the Toluca Valley. Then we began to climb into rugged, heavily forested mountains cut by deep gorges. Until Mexico began to build modern highways in the last part of the 20th and the early 21st centuries, this region was relatively inaccessible, except for a handful of poorly maintained roads. Ever since the 1810 War of Independence, insurgents, rebels, and revolutionaries have staged lightning raids followed by retreats up little-known paths into these mountains.

Taxco sprawls across mountain slopes. After traveling along winding mountain roads through stunning scenery, we finally rounded a curve and caught a full view of Taxco de Alarcón. The city was founded in 1529 and has a current population of just under 40,000. In spite of the mountainous location, the climate here is quite mild, with an average high of 27C (81F) and a low of 17C (63F). This makes Taxco a very popular tourist destination for Mexicans. We saw very few people from the US, Canada, or Europe during our visit.

Ahead of us, we could see our road cutting along the base of an impressive bluff. Located atop this bluff are Hotel Monte Taxco as well as a number of expensive private homes. The top of the bluff can be reached by a road, a hiking path, or an aerial tram.

View of the bluff from the balcony of the Angel Inn restaurant. The cliffs fall vertically for several hundred feet, providing an impressive backdrop. Hotel Monte Taxco can be seen at the top the bluff in the upper left corner of the photo. During our Taxco visit, we rode the tram up and lunched on the hotel's balcony. I'll show photos of the view from there in a subsequent posting. The colonial-era church in the center of the photo above is part of the former Convento de San Bernardino de Siena. Behind it is another church called Iglesia Chavarria. Both of these will be covered in detail in future postings.

One of the high-end homes on the bluff perches precariously on this cliff. While most of Taxco is not quite this precipitous, buildable land has been scarce since the city was founded almost 500 years ago. New construction must often be done on the steep slopes and up the sides of arroyos. As a result, the street map resembles a bowl of spaghetti.

Hotel Loma Linda sits high on a ridge over a deep arroyo. I counted seven stories in this hotel. One advantage of building on a slope like this is that nearly every room has a spectacular view. As a popular Mexican tourist destination, Taxco is loaded with hotels. Many are not only charming and comfortable, but very inexpensive. For example, a double room at Hotel Loma Linda costs only $666 pesos / night ($34.00 USD).

More multi-story hotels stack up, one behind the other. At some of these places, the street entrance is actually the top floor. With so many hotels, it is relatively easy to find accommodations except during major fiestas. Most hotels and B&Bs can be reached through one of the on-line booking sites.

A huge statue of Christ stands on the summit of the highest hill overlooking Taxco. We were going to check out the view from there but didn't get around to it. However, there are so many dramatic vista points in and around this town that I don't think it mattered.

Parroquia Santa Prisca's elaborate dome and twin steeples, seen from the rear. This shot gives a feel for how the city's buildings are packed together on the steep hillside. We like to walk, even when the streets are steep. For those whose mobility is more limited, there are many taxis and and their fares are low. The taxi fare for a ride clear across town costs about $30 pesos ($1.53 USD). Fares are even cheaper for shorter runs. In addition, there are passenger vans called collectivos that cost less than 1/2 of a taxi ride, if you don't mind frequent stops and sharing the ride with others.

The dome of Santa Prisca, dramatically silhouetted against the sky. I took the shot from one of the several balconies and terraces of the Angel Inn. We ate our most expensive meal here, with a total dinner price for two of about $450 pesos ($23 USD). This might not seem high to someone from the US, Canada, or Europe, but it's fairly steep for Mexico. We seldom paid over $200 pesos total ($10.20 USD) at other places with equally good food and views just as dramatic.

Hotel Los Arcos

Hotel Los Arcos, where we stayed, is just around the corner from Plaza Borda.Hotel Los Arcos was originally a 17th century convent. It is conveniently located near many interesting locations, including the main plaza. The brown building on the right of the photo is the Viceregal Museum, which displays artifacts from pre-hispanic times up through the colonial period. I will feature it in a future posting. When picking hotels, we always look for one that is close to a town's historic center. That way, we can keep our car parked in the hotel's garage and just stroll about, soaking up the atmosphere. In a town like Taxco, with its extremely narrow and crowded streets, you don't want to do much driving in any case.

The Sotavento Restaurant Bar is part of Hotel Los Arcos. Some Mexican hotels with on-site restaurants provide breakfast as part of the tarifa (room charge), but Los Arcos does not. However, our double-room tarifa was only $666 pesos ($34.00), and there are many excellent and inexpensive breakfast spots in the area, in addition to Sotavento. We like variety, so this worked well for us.

Hotel Emilia Castillo is across the narrow, cobblestone street from Los Arcos. This hotel contains a sushi restaurant that we were going to try, but we never got around to it. So many restaurants, so little time! Hotel Emilia's rates are very close to those of Los Arcos.

Santiago Matamoros (St. James the Moorslayer) trampling the heads of Moors. The relief carving above may be an original colonial work, but there wasn't any sign, so I can only guess. Santiago was the patron of the conquistadors who seized the New World from its indigenous inhabitants.

Like most colonial buildings, Los Arcos is built around a central, open-air courtyard. The patio is surrounded by pillared arcades called portales. On the opposite side of the patio, you can see the old stone staircase that leads up to our room on the second floor.

A stone monkey fills the bowl of a small fountain in one of the charming little side patios. The monkey is an example of Mexico's typically quirky sense of humor. Los Arcos contains many little nooks where a guest can find a bit of solitude.

View from the third floor down to the central courtyard. The branches of a huge old tree provide shade for the courtyard. Our room was large and comfortable and contained most of the usual hotel amenities. What it did not have were screens for the two windows. Given the mild climate, few places here provide air conditioning but we still like to keep the windows open for circulation. This resulted in occasional dive-bombing by mosquitos, the price of colonial ambiance.

Restaurant Sotavento is located just off the courtyard. The ambiance is inviting and the food is excellent. This surprised me a bit. Usually, hotels with restaurants seem to feel that they have a captive clientele. This often results in mediocre food and unduly high prices. Not so with Sotavento! We liked it so much that we ate dinner here regularly.

A praying Aztec figure found on the wall of Los Arco's courtyard. This beautiful little figure is made of hammered copper. He wears a feathered head-dress, a loincloth, and jewelry, all made of silver set with abalone shell. The little designs coming up from his mouth were the pre-hispanic way of indicating speech, much like the speech balloons of modern cartoons.

This completes Part 1 of my Taxco series. In the next part, we will explore Plaza Borda, the town's colonial center. If you would like to leave a question or a comment, please do so in the Comments section below, or email me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section PLEASE leave your email address so I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Plaza Borda bustles with activity, particularly the area in front of Parroquia Santa Prisca. At any one time, Santa Prisca may conduct a Mass, wedding, or funeral. Adding to the hubbub, vendors sell food, sombreros, balloons and shoe shines; shoppers look for bargains; endless streams of taxis load or unload passengers; folk dancers cavort on a stage; local folks stroll about, while tourists like myself gawk and take photos. I usually find Mexican plazas to be a lot of fun, but Plaza Borda is a 3-ring circus without the tent. Best of all, it is located right around the corner from Hotel Los Arcos, where we stayed during our visit to Taxco (see Part 1). In this part of my Taxco series, I'll show you some of the stunning architecture surrounding the plaza as well as some of the activities which occur within it.

The plaza is named after José de la Borda, the rich miner who built Parroquia Santa Prisca. This elegant, life-size statue of Borda is located in one corner of Plaza Borda. Other statues and portraits of him can be found throughout Taxco. Borda was a French/Spaniard who was born in 1700 and lived until 1778, a ripe old age in those days. His father was a French army officer and his mother a Spaniard. Borda was preceded in New Spain (Mexico) by his brother Francisco, who had founded a mine near Taxco. At age 17, José joined him to participate in what was, at the time, New Spain's biggest mining bonanza. After gaining some experience in the business, José de la Borda founded his own mine in 1734, a venture which proved very successful. When his brother died a few years later, Borda inherited his property, making him one of New Spain's richest men. The mining magnate decided to use some of his great wealth to build a magnificent church in Taxco.

Santa Prisca dominates Plaza Borda and its tall steeples can be seen throughout Taxco. The King of Spain gave José de la Borda permission to build the church, but said that the miner must mortgage his property to ensure its completion. Apparently the Spanish monarch was tired of boastful dreamers whose failed projects required the Crown or the Church to step in and clean up the mess. Trusting in the bottomless capacity of his mines, and in his own good luck, Borda signed the agreement to build this incredibly ornate church. In the end, it nearly bankrupted him, but his good luck held. With his Taxco mines playing out, and his loans coming due, he decided to take a chance on mining in Zacatecas, far to the north. Borda struck it rich again with a silver mine aptly named "La Esperanza" (The Hope). This bonanza made him the wealthiest man in New Spain at that time, and possibly in the world. Borda completed Santa Prisca and several other major architectural projects before he died. He succumbed to the cumulative, poisonous effects of mercury, a key element used in processing silver. In a later posting, we'll take a detailed look at this architectural gem.

A sombrero vendor scans the crowd for a prospective buyer. I am always amused by the creative way that these folks transport their wares. Since the straw hats are light, they can wear a considerable number of them at one time. The root of the Spanish word sombrero is sombra, which means "shade or shadow". He was one of many different vendors who roamed the plaza and nearby streets, hoping for a sale. Regardless of the weight of the hats, street vending is a difficult form of employment.

A couple of elderly residents relax in the brief early morning period before the plaza gets busy. The plaza contains one of the ubiquitous kioscos (bandstands) found throughout Mexico. Early colonial paintings and drawings rarely show kioscos in plazas. In colonial times, these were places to bring goods for sale, to slaughter and butcher animals, and to draw water from public wells or fountains. They also functioned as execution sites for criminals, rebels, and heretics--sometimes en masse. In the 19th century the function of plazas began to change, particularly after the conclusion of the War of Independence in 1821. Plazas became places of leisure and entertainment. In the mid-to-late 19th century, kioscos began to appear. This trend accelerated during the French intervention of 1862-67, when Napoleon II installed Austrian Archduke Maximilian and his wife Charlotte as Mexico's rulers. Culturally and architecturally sophisticated, the royal couple encouraged Mexican communities to re-make their plazas into parks. The royal couple curried favor by making gifts of kioscos throughout the county. The transformation of plazas continued even after Maximilian was overthrown and executed. French culture and architecture remained popular in Mexico, particularly during the rule of the dictator Porfirio Diaz (1876-1911).

Large metal stars hang from the branches of a tree that shades the plaza. These lamps help illuminate the plaza at night. The light shines out through the holes artistically cut in the rays of the star. Similar creations are hammered out in metal-working shops all over Mexico. During the day, the huge tree's thick branches provide shade for a large part of the plaza. It may have been only a sapling when Borda completed Santa Prisca in 1758, but it's a giant now.

A balloon-selling clown shows off his wears. As balloon sellers generally are, this fellow was popular with kids of all ages, including those with grey hair and spectacles. When I asked for a photo, he struck this pose. This clown doesn't just sell balloons, but twists them into various interesting shapes, upon request.

The Parroquia Restaurant and Bar's umbrellas are arrayed in ranks like soldiers. The Parroquia Restaurant and Bar, has been in business since 1984. It stands on the opposite side of the plaza from Parroquia Santa Prisca, hence the name. In order to take advantage of the views, many of Taxco's restaurants and bars set up balconies and terraces on their top floors and roofs. Although the temperature here is mild, the sun can be quite intense, making the umbrellas a welcome addition.

Closeup of the Parroquia Restaurant and Bar. A roof-top table, or one in the window, provides a bird's eye view of all the activity in the plaza. The building's ground floor houses a jewelry shop selling all sorts of decorative silver objects.

Down in the street, a family pauses while looking for an opening in the chaotic traffic. All of them wear helmets and long pants, two very good ideas when using a vehicle like this. All too many young Mexicans avail themselves of neither. I have seen family groups like this with as many as five riders on a single scooter. This often includes small babies strapped to their parents' chests. After all, what could possibly go wrong?

Casa Borda, the cultural center, occupies most of one side of the plaza. Juan de la Borda built this mansion as his home in 1759, shortly after completing Santa Prisca. Today, it functions as a cultural center for art exhibits and performances of music and dance. It has two stories in front, but five in the rear, due to the drop of the terrain.

Folklorico dancers perform on a stage in front of Casa Borda. Folkloricos are traditional dances by performers in regional costumes. They were performed several times during our visit and drew large, enthusiastic crowds. Some folklorico dances date back as far as pre-hispanic times. In a later posting in this series, I will show you some of the dancers dressed in their beautiful costumes.

A local cop strides across the plaza, intent on clearing up a traffic snarl. The police of Taxco seem friendly and helpful and we didn't have any untoward experiences with them. The lot of a cop in Mexico is often not a happy one. They are usually underpaid and undertrained and thus become tempted into corrupt behavior. In addition, the job can be very risky, especially when dealing with narco-trafficantes. A taxi driver I know used to be a Jalisco State police officer. I asked him why he gave up policing. His reply? "Too risky."

A Volkswagon taxi heads up into the plaza to deliver a passenger. There are hordes of these white VWs roaming the narrow streets. The two vans behind the VW are collectivos, a sort of mini-public bus. Their rates are a fraction of the cost of a taxi. On the other hand, the collectivos make multiple stops and can take longer to reach your destination.

A passenger negotiates a fare while a jovial pedestrian strolls by. It is always advisable to settle the fare before getting in the cab. We were warned against taxistas who sometimes overcharge unsuspecting tourists. However, even with an overcharge, the fares are still cheap.

A pedestrian street, called an andador, branches off from the plaza to the west. The steeples of Santa Prisca can be seen in the background. Walking along an andador feels like strolling through a different century.

Same andador, opposite direction. I discovered a small fountain at the point where the andador divided, with one route going up hill while the other headed down. Just behind the fountain, at the dividing point, is another of the ubiquitous platerias (silver shops).

A plateria owner relaxes outside his shop, waiting for a customer. This shop faces directly on the plaza, across the street from Casa Borda. Taxco continued to be a major silver ore producer until the 1810-1821 War of Independence. During the war, the mines were destroyed by their owners so they wouldn't fall into the hands of the insurgents. For the next 200 years, Taxco had little to do with the silver business. Then, American archaeologist William Spratling moved to Mexico to study its culture. When the road between Mexico City and Taxco finally opened up in the 1920s, Spratling settled in the old silver town. US Ambassador Dwight Morrow encouraged him to develop silversmithing in Taxco and Spratling took him up on it. The archaeologist designed jewelry based on pre-hispanic objects he had recovered in various ruins. He brought in a goldsmith from Iguala to teach jewelry-making and many trainees later opened their own stores. Spratling's dream was achieved. Unfortunately, he was killed in an auto accident in 1967, just outside Taxco. However, William Spratling's work has outlived him by almost 50 years. Taxco is now world-famous for the quality of its silversmithing.

This completes Part 2 of my Taxco series. I hope you enjoyed it and, if so, you will leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below. If you leave a question in the Comments section PLEASE leave your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Dancers in traditional costumes whirl and stomp on a stage in Taxco's Plaza Borda. While visiting Plaza Borda, we stumbled across a free public performance of a baile folklorico (folkloric dance). Hundreds, perhaps even thousands, of similar dance troupes perform regularly all over Mexico. While some are made up of salaried professionals, others come from small towns. The local troupes often include children and older people among their performers. Even the amateurs are fun to watch and there are several of these groups in the Lake Chapala area where we live. The baile folklorico troupe above is from Taxco and they are quite good. The performers regularly changed into the regional costumes of the areas where particular dances originated. In this short posting, you'll see the dancers in action and I'll provide a bit of the history of the art form.

Beautifully embroidered costumes are part of a dance from Mexico's Gulf Coast area. The music and instruments used for particular dances are also typical of that region, in this case marimbas. Folk dances have been popular among Mexico's common people for hundreds of years. Some even date back to the pre-hispanic era. However, until the 1910 Revolution, the culture of commoners was generally ignored, if not disparaged, by the society's elites. "Well-bred" people were focused on Spanish culture during the colonial and early post-colonial era. During the last part of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, everything French was the height of fashion.

A pair of dancers strut their stuff. The embroidered white outfits of the performers are typical of the Gulf Coast and Yucatan. The great popular uprising known as the Mexican Revolution refocused attention on indigenous people and common folk in general. Revolutionary leaders like Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata came from humble origins as did many others. The Revolution brought an ideological shift away from Europe and toward Mexico's roots. The broad public interest in pre-hispanic glory and Mexico's popular culture was viewed by Revolutionary leaders as a way of uniting a shattered country.

The couple above are attired much like the country people of previous centuries. Men wore home-spun white cotton pants and shirts. They carried serapes, which are folded blankets worn over the shoulder. A head-hole is cut in the middle of a serape so it can be used either as a garment or a bed roll. Broad straw hats gave protection against the intense Mexican sun. Women wore full, ankle-length skirts, the more colorful the better. They tied their hair up in buns with ribbons and flowers.

Much of the dancing involved fancy footwork, a little like tap dancing. When the whole troupe danced together, they created a thunderous sound with the hard leather heels of their shoes. These kinds of drum-like dance steps are called zapateados. The Casa Borda cultural center, which sponsored the event, set up rows of chairs for the public. Many more people stood behind them to watch. One of the joys of Mexico is that there is so much free public entertainment. In most towns, the local plaza includes a cultural center. These tax-supported institutions promote art, music, and dance created or performed by members of the local community. People are encouraged to participate, not just as spectators but as performers.

The outfits above are typical of western Mexico, particularly of my home state of Jalisco. The vividly contrasting colors of the woman's dress remind me of the profusion of multi-colored flowers that blossom here year-round. The man is dressed as a vaquero (cowboy), wearing denim, leather boots, and a cowboy hat. This reflects a long tradition of cattle raising that dates back to the 17th century. In fact, Mexico's vaqueros invented the entire cowboy culture and technology 200 years before the first American cowboy pulled on his spurs.

The full, flowing skirts lend themselves to the dramatic twirls. The Jarabe Tapatio is one of the dances associated with Jalisco's capital, Guadalajara. El baile de los sonajeros (the rattle dance) is another Jalisco specialty. These dances are usually accompanied by mariachi music, which was born in Jalisco. Baile folklorico as an art form was invented in the 1950s by Amalia Hernandez. She established a school of folkloric dance in Mexico City and assembled a dance troupe called Baile Folkorico Mexico. Today, this troupe performs regularly in the Palacio de Bellas Artes in Mexico City. They also tour internationally. Several years ago, during a visit to Mexico City, Carole and I attended one of their spectacular performances.

In a dance about marriage, the bride and groom kiss. Baile folklorico is the antithesis of the winner-take-all, star-system which passes for public entertainment in the US. Baile folklorico encourages participation, even by some of the poorest pueblos. In the so-called First World, entertainment is all about glorifying a tiny elite who collect the Big Bucks. This star-system, promoted by TV, encourages a passive, couch-potato viewership. People become fans rather than participants. That there are well-paid, top-level troupes in Mexico is undeniable. However, the widespread participation in this art form by local dance groups makes baile folklorico an entertainment of, for, and by the people.

The "bride" twirls in her voluminous gown, ecstatic in her new status. Several times, as we passed through Plaza Borda on our way to somewhere else, we paused to watch these skilled performers. Each time, we saw a bit more of their repertoire and reflected on our good fortune to be here during a performance.

This completes Part 3 of my Taxco series. I hope you enjoyed it and, if so, that you leave any thoughts and questions in the Comments section below, or email them to me directly. If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Parroquia Santa Prisca perches on a mountain slope in the center of Taxco. The church was built in the 18th century Mexican Baroque style known as Churrigueresque. Santa Prisca is considered one of Mexico's two masterpieces of the style, the other being the Cathedral in Zacatecas. In this posting, we'll take a close look at the ornate exterior of the church. The following posting will examine the stunning retablos (altar pieces) that cover the walls of the interior. An immensely wealthy silver miner named José de la Borda financed Santa Prisca's construction. The project nearly bankrupted him. Borda built the church to thank God for his good luck in the mining business. Not coincidentally, his son Manuel was the priest who became the curate of the splendid new parroquia (parish church). To locate Parroquia Santa Prisca in Taxco, click on this Google map.

The entrance facade

The facade and steeples of Santa Prisca.The intricate sculptural decorations typical of Churrigueresque were so expensive that even a rich man like Borda couldn't afford to cover the entire exterior with them. Santa Prisca was built between 1751 and 1758, near the end of Churrigueresque's popularity in Mexico. During this period, the Neo-classic style began to gain favor, in part as a reaction to Churrigueresque's florid, over-the-top emotionality. Neo-classic, as the name implies, was modeled on the cool rationality and clean lines of ancient Greco-Roman architecture. Santa Prisca was constructed in a remarkably short time by two architects, the Frenchman Don Diego Durán and a Spaniard named Cayetano de Siguenza. A group of outstanding artists created the exquisite interior, which we'll look at in the next posting.

The facade of a church is composed of the area around and above the main entrance. Santa Prisca's facade was carved from pink sandstone, which glows warmly in the afternoon sun. As you can see, nearly every square inch is covered. In the oval center is a scene of the baptism of Jesus. On either side, framed by spiral columns, are the statues of Santa Prisca (L) and San Sebastian (R), two early Christian martyrs. At the top, the Virgin of the Assumption stands over a clock. Viewed as a whole, the effect is a overwhelming. There is so much detail that it can be difficult to focus. It is only when you zero in on particular elements of the design that you begin to appreciate it. That is the approach I will take, beginning with the clock topped by the Virgin.

The Virgin Mary stands on top of the clock, surrounded by cherubs and saints. This ensemble represents the Assumption which, according to Catholic dogma, occurred at the end of Mary's earthly life when both her body and soul were borne up to heaven. This dogma is relatively new, having been officially adopted only in 1950. There is no mention of the Assumption in the New Testament. However, in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, people began to ask "what happened to Mary after she died?" After all, if Jesus was the Son of God, surely his mother wouldn't have died as an ordinary mortal. In all cultures, when in doubt, people make up legends. According to one early story, the Apostle Thomas heard Mary was dying and came to visit but arrived too late. Her tomb was opened so he could pay his last respects, but it was empty except for her grave clothes. Over the centuries, the stories became more and more elaborate. Great disputes broke out among theologians about the details. In 1950, almost 2000 years after the supposed fact, Pope Pius XII settled the issue. Exercising his power of "papal infallibility" he declared a particular version the Assumption to be Catholic dogma.

Cherubs frolic all over the facade. To the left of the choir window, two cherubs kneel on either side of a coat-of-arms containing an eagle standing on a nopal cactus with a crown on top. Interestingly, the eagle on the nopal is an Aztec symbol. In the corner above, two others hold a shield with a face looking our of the sun. A cherub figures like this are called putti (putto is the singular). A putto is a male child, usually naked and often with wings. They appear in both religious and secular art, especially during the Baroque period. In religious art, putti symbolize the omnipresence of God. The origins of putti go back to classical Greek and Roman times. They were believed to be half-human, half-divine companions of Aphrodite (Venus) the goddess of love. Putti fell out of favor during the Middle Ages but reappeared during the Renaissance. The 15th century Florentine artist Donatello is credited with the revival of putti and they remained popular into the 19th century.

The center piece of the facade is the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist. The oval panel is surrounded by putti. Inside the oval, John baptizes Jesus while God and several angels look on. Grouped around the figure of God are the heads of more putti. Parroquia Santa Prisca is unusual for its unified artistic conception. The architects, masons, sculptors, and artists all worked together throughout the seven year building process and the overall project was financed and supervised by one man, José de la Borda. Most other large, distinctive churches were built over many decades, or even centuries. Sometimes there were long periods when the work halted, due to lack of funding or political unrest. Over these long construction periods, successive architects and artists were employed. Each used different styles according to what was popular during the times in which they worked. For example, the Zacatecas Cathedral has a gorgeous Churrigueresque exterior, but its interior combines 19th century Neo-classical with 20th century modern, a jarring amalgamation in my opinion. By contrast, the style of Santa Prisca is the same throughout, resulting in a jewel-like quality that has been widely acclaimed since the 18th century.

A statue of Santa Prisca fills a niche to the left of the baptism scene. According to one version of her legend, she was martyred as a young girl by the Emperor Claudius (41 AD - 54 AD) because she refused to renounce Christianity. Santa Prisca was a 13-year-old member of a noble Roman family. She was arrested, beaten, and thrown into prison after she refused make a sacrifice to the Roman god Apollo. Released, she again refused and was flogged and burned with boiling tallow. Next, Prisca was thrown to a lion which lay down beside her and refused to attack. After that failure, she was starved, tortured on the rack, and thrown onto a burning pyre. Again, she miraculously survived. The frustrated Claudius ordered the young teen beheaded, a method which finally succeeded. Modern Catholic theologian Johann Kirsch maintains that all this is unhistorical and the details are impossible. However, she did acquire quite a following in the early Church and today is revered by the Catholic, Anglican, and Eastern Orthodox faiths. The statue above was damaged at some point and lost its hands. She is often portrayed holding a palm frond, representing martrydom, in her right hand.

A statue of San Sebastian stands in the right side niche. I believe he may be the only saint who managed to get himself martyred twice. According to legend, San Sebastian was a young captain in the Emperor's bodyguard. He was also a secret Christian who tried to save other Christians imprisoned by the Emperor Diocletian (244 AD - 312 AD). Ultimately, the young officer was exposed and the Emperor ordered him to be tied to a tree and shot full of arrows. Their work done, the archers left Sebastian for dead. Miraculously, he survived and a local woman nursed him back to health. After recovering, Sebastian sought out the Emperor and loudly denounced him for persecuting Christians. Needless to say, Diocletian was both surprised and annoyed. He ordered Sebastian seized, beaten to death, and his body thrown into a sewer. This time, the martyrdom succeeded. The statue above shows Sebastian's body--contorted but still living--tied to a tree stump. The distinctive spiral columns framing the niches of both Santa Prisca and San Sebastian are carved in a Baroque style called Solomonic. According to legend, similar spiral columns were recovered from the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem by Constantine, the first Christian Emperor. It's a good story, but archaeologists have established that the original Solomonic columns actually came from Greece.

The heavy wooden entrance door is beautifully carved and embossed with brass fittings. According to local legend, a miracle occurred during the construction of the church. One evening in 1751, masons and sculptors were busy at their work. They swarmed over scaffolding that covered the facade and steeples at the time. Suddenly, the sky darkened and wind howled through the streets. Bolts of lightning lit up the scene as terrified workers scrambled down the rickety scaffolding. Townspeople feared the church was about to be destroyed by demons. Then, a vision appeared. A beautiful woman dressed in Roman robes floated over the church carrying the palm of martyrs. It was, of course, Santa Prisca. The storm died away and the vision gradually dissolved into the evening air. The new church was saved by the saint to which it was dedicated.

The steeples

Santa Prisca's twin towers are as intricately decorated as its facade. Each tower contains eight bells. Four small bronze bells are on the top level with four larger ones on the bottom. The bells are suspended from wooden scaffolds and rung by hand. Notice the figures of saints, reaching out their right hands, on each corner of the upper level.

The bell openings at each level are framed by columns with Corinthian capitals. These show evidence of Neo-Classic influence, which was beginning to spread in Mexico at this time. Between the columns, the Churrigueresque style dominates. The sculpture contains two complete putti, one on either side. The head of another forms a triangle. Within the triangle is a highly stylized heart. Above the heart are what appear to be three crowns, stacked one atop the other. Winding through all this are vines and floral embellishments, another typical Baroque feature. The amazing thing is that all this is barely visible from the street below. Only with a telephoto lens, or a telescope, can they be viewed and appreciated. In the 18th century, of course, no one had a telephoto camera lens. Very few people possessed a telescope or any other method of optical enhancement. These are embellishments meant to be appreciated by God, not man.

The face of a satyr supports a balcony in the lower level of the bell tower. The figure has pointed ears, a goatee and what appear to be curling horns emerging from its hair. Satyrs were companions of Dionysus, the Greek god of wine, women, and song. Greek pottery from the 6th century BC sometimes contained artistic representations of satyrs drinking from goblets and playing pipes. Others show them chasing nymphs. Satyrs are creatures of physical pleasure, altogether a curious feature to appear on a Catholic church otherwise dedicated to the concepts of suffering and martyrdom.

The dome and side walls

The dome sits over the main altar of the church, at the far end of the nave from the entrance. The eight windows provide natural light for the most important area of the church. The roof of the dome is covered by talavera tiles. At the very top is a cupola with a cross. The cupola appears to be a smaller version of the dome below. Along the railings and positioned around the dome just below the tiled area are finials. These architectural decorations are solid carved stone in the shape of vases. They were a very popular feature in both religious and secular architecture during colonial times and right up through the 19th century.

Red sandstone was used to accent white plaster walls. Above is a section of the right side exterior wall of the church. The facade around the larger doorway is impressive and even the small door to its right his highly decorated. Each window is framed with elaborately carved stone. Numerous finials were used to highlight the railings and balconies.

Archangel San Miguel stands on a pedestal near the main entrance. He is a winged warrior, the leader of God's armies against the forces of Satan, as depicted in the New Testament's Book of Revelations. Above, he wields a sword and shield while stepping on the neck of Satan in the form of a snake with a human face. Archangel Michael also appears in the Old Testament's Book of Daniel. This reference pre-dates Christianity by centuries. He is a powerful symbol, particularly when used to justify violent action against the supposed enemies of God, such as Spanish Muslims and the followers of various pre-hispanic New World religions.

This completes Part 4 of my Taxco series. The next part of the series will focus on the exquisite interior of Santa Prisca. I hope you have enjoyed this posting and, if so, that you leave any thoughts and questions in the Comments section below, or email them to me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Participant in Ajijic's Dia de los Muertos parade. For many foreigners, Dia de los Muertos (Day of the Dead) is one of the most puzzling and misunderstood of all Mexico's innumerable fiestas. The event seems vaguely like Halloween, but the traditions, meanings, and history are entirely different. The fiesta is called "Day" of the Dead but it actually encompasses two days. An outsider, unfamiliar with the fiesta, might expect great solemnity among the families gathered around cemetery plots. Instead, copious amounts of tequila and cerveza (beer) are consumed and laughter rings out. Boisterous brass bands simultaneously playing different tunes compete for attention. Good humor and friendliness abound. In this posting, I will try to provide some understanding for people who may read about, or attend, one of these events. The 2016 fiesta is scheduled for Tuesday, November 1 and Wednesday November 2. The first day, Dia de los Angelitos, is dedicated to dead children (angelitos=little angels). Because of their youth, they are believed to have died without sin and can intercede in Heaven on behalf of their families. My photos and commentary are focused on the second day, Dia de los Muertos, because that is really the main event. I should note here that traditions in Mexico tend to vary according to locality. I can only report on what I have observed and photographed at Ajijic and Chapala, in Jalisco.

El Panteon (the Cemetery)

A family surrounds the candle-lit plot of ground where their loved ones are buried. Candles and cempasúchil (marigolds) are two important elements of the fiesta. They help the souls of the dead find their way "home" for a visit. Many cemetery plots are raised and often contain elaborate above-ground structures, depending upon the resources of the family. Here and there, though, you will find a simple stone marker or rustic wooden cross at the head of a heap of fresh earth. I was touched to see that even the simplest burials were decorated with at least a few candles and a handful of marigolds in a tin can.

This tomb was decorated with a photo of the deceased, apparently an avid horseman. From the spectators in the background, he appears to have been a participant in the parades held during various fiestas throughout the year. Photos of the dead are often placed on grave sites as well as on the special altars families create outside their homes. Notice the elegant glasses holding the votive candles on this rather plush mausoleum.

A young girl decorates her family plot. She has spaced candles to form a cross and sprinkled marigold petals around them. Living marigolds in pots stand on either side of a bouquet of other flowers filling an empty paint can. When photographing individuals, I always seek permission. Virtually everyone I asked at the fiesta agreed with a smile. This girl was no exception.

No part of Dia de los Muertos is quiet. Music from this brass band blared through the panteon. The musicians adorned themselves with face paint and wore matching skull t-shirts. Street vendors outside the panteon's entrance hawked the shirts to celebrants passing by. I bought one to wear at this and future Dias de los Muertos. Several other bands circulated among the grave sites, ready to play requests for a fee. The competing bands, each playing a different tune, created a cacophony that should be familiar to anyone who has attended a Mexican fiesta.

Several elegant couples danced to the music. Skull face paint is wildly popular among fiesta participants. Some of the designs are extraordinary. The man wears a Charro outfit with a tight-fitting, embroidered jacket and a wide sombrero. His partner's black sombrero and lacy black dress are set off nicely by her white face.

Pre-hispanic roots of Dia de los Muertos

The painted skull on this woman's face is remarkably realistic. The people of Mexico have been fascinated by all aspects of death since the earliest pre-hispanic times. Human skulls decorated with inlaid turquoise were found in the ruins of the great city of Teotihuacan (100 BC - 650 AD). From then, all the way through the Aztec era (1250 AD - 1521 AD), human bones were used ritually. Skulls were sometimes substituted as balls in the pre-hispanic ball games. Human leg bones were carved with various mystic designs. Other bones were made into musical instruments such as flutes. The Spanish arrival resulted in a holocaust. Imported diseases, massacres, and general abuse reduced the indigenous population by 90% in less than 100 years. Beginning with the 1810 War of Independence and lasting through drug wars of the 2000s, a long series of fierce conflicts wracked the country. During the Revolution alone (1910 - 1921) Mexico lost 1 out of 7 people. More recently, the drug war (2006-2016) has cost at least 60,000 lives. All of this has given Mexicans a deep familiarity with death and, oddly, enabled them to laugh at it.

Three young women cheerfully pose for a photo. Notice the woman in the center, with only half of her face painted. This is a reference to the concept of duality, an idea that can be traced to the earliest pre-hispanic civilizations. It was central to their view of the cosmos. Everything had its opposite and, together, these created a whole. This included life and death, light and darkness, men and women, hot and cold. etc. Nothing could be fully understood on its own, but only in relation to its opposite. The most important god was the unknowable Ometeotl, the god of duality. This deity had both male and female attributes and was the creator of the cosmos and all other gods. In fact, Aztec priests at the highest level believed there was only one god, and all the others were simply facets or expressions of Ometeotl. The god of duality was so unknowable that no sculptures, paintings, or other representations of Ometeotl have ever been found. Only one temple was ever built for this deity, but it contained no images or statues.

This photograph represents another ancient concept: the cyclical nature of the universe. The photographer modeled his work on an Aztec terracotta sculpture contained in the unique Museum of Death, located in Aguascalientes. The ancient people of Mesoamerica believed that everything in the universe operated on a recurring cyclical basis. Youth turns to old age, which moves into death and re-birth as the cycle continues. Everything in the pre-hispanic world seemed to confirm this: the seasons; the movement of sun, moon, and stars; the life cycle of animals and plants. Some of the ancient civilizations created sophisticated calendars based on cyclical movements of the stars and planets. They were particularly fascinated by Venus which was seen as a symbol of death and rebirth since it appears in the evening and reappears in the morning.

This Dia de los Muertos altar in Chapala recreated an ancient Shaft Tomb. This method of burial was used between 300 BC and 400 AD in the western Mexico states of Jalisco, Colima, and Nayarit. The ancient people would dig a shaft straight down into the relatively soft volcanic soil. Some of the shafts were as much as 20 m (65 ft) deep and had as many as 4 chambers extending out from the bottom. Objects of religious significance, as well as from daily life, were placed on and around the bodies. Much of what we know about the people who participated in the Shaft Tomb tradition comes from artifacts found in these burials. They include beautiful, realistic sculptures of people playing with children, making meals, chatting with friends, playing music, and circle dancing. There were also models of the homes they lived in, some containing a dog house with a pet peeking out. Archaeologists call these objects "grave goods".

A family altar recreates the architecture of an ancient stepped pyramid. This is the typical format for these altars. Once again the pre-hispanic roots of the fiesta emerge, not only in the shape of the altars but with the objects placed on each step. They are the modern equivalent of the grave goods found in shaft tombs as well as other burial sites around Mexico. Some of the objects have religious significance, but most relate to the likes, hobbies, and daily life of the person being remembered.

Los altares familiares (the family altars)

A typical altar tableau begins with the pathway leading up to it. The sides are lined with votive candles, while the surface is carpeted with marigold flower petals. More marigolds line the perimeter of the altar area. The altars are central to the fiesta. Think of the dead not as gone forever, but merely having passed over into a different plane of existence. Annually (i.e. cyclically), on the Dia de los Muetos, they return for a visit. The candles and marigold carpet help guide them home to the altar and their waiting family. It's a bit like leaving the porch light on so a relative who has been on a long journey can find your home.

Home at last! The photo the the deceased occupies the central position on the altar. Various objects used by the person are arranged on either side of the photo, such as the gloves to the left of the photo. On other altars, I have seen saddles and riding gear, musical instruments such as a guitar or clarinet, small tools, artists brushes and pallets, etc. Notice the food arranged on the lower level of the altar. After such a long journey, surely the traveler will be hungry!

Hygene first! Often you will find a pitcher of water, soap, and a towel arranged on one of the steps. A thoughtful family will not forget the need for a traveler to clean up before turning to the sumptuous meal that awaits.

Eat, drink, and be merry, for tomorrow you'll be dead again. The dearly departed's favorite foods are presented here. Apparently the deceased liked Coca Cola, Corona beer, and a brand of tequila that I can't make out. Fruit, pastries, frijoles and various Mexican dishes are all interspersed with candles and the step is dusted with marigold petals. After hospitality like this, the traveler will definitely want to return in a year. And the ancient cycle goes on.

Catrinas

A catrina strikes a dramatic pose in the Ajijic Plaza. This figure was one of a large number created by various groups and individuals for display at the Ajijic Plaza and along the malecones (waterfront walks) of both Ajijic and Chapala. All of the catrinas were creatively designed and most were clothed with recycled materials.

An elegant catrina wears the large floppy hat of a wealthy 19th century matron. The genesis of Catrinas is much more recent than other aspects of the fiesta. Actually, they weren't originally related to Dia de los Muertos at all, but grew out of 19th century political cartoons. José Guadalupe Posada (1852-1913) was a young man who was born and raised in Aguascalientes. His older brother was a school teacher who taught him to draw. Posada eventually got a job as a cartoonist with an Aguascalientes newspaper called El Jicote (the Bumblebee).

This blonde is quite a flashy dresser. El Jicote lasted only 11 issues. Apparently, one of Posada's cartoons stung someone important, because he and the publisher had to flee the city. Posada landed in Leon, far enough away from his angry critic to be safe. Rather than give up his profession, he was inspired to continue. However, because of a massive flood in Leon, Posada had to move again and ended up in Mexico City. There, he resumed his career as a political cartoonist. Posada began drawing his catrinas during the rule of Porfirio Diaz, a period called the Porfiriato (1876-1911).

This catrina is clothed with Mexico's famous Monarch butterflies. After Porfirio Diaz secured political stability, foreign investment poured in, railroads began to criss-cross the country, and trade and industry grew rapidly. The economy as a whole took off, but the vast majority of the gains were funneled to a tiny elite. Although there was a small middle class, most Mexicans were increasingly impoverished. The elite were enamoured of French culture and styles and it was their pretensions that Posada lampooned when he drew the elaborately dressed skeletons he called catrinas. Posada died in 1913, but in the 1930s the great muralist Diego Rivera resurrected his work. Catrinas have been wildly popular in Mexico ever since.

The Parade

After the festivities in the Panteon, celebrants formed a parade back to the main plaza. Above, a young man balances a cardboard coffin on his head. Everything was very friendly and informal, so I decided to join the parade and photograph its participants. Again, there was a notable lack of solemnity.

What's a parade without music? Of course, with several bands playing simultaneously, and never the same tune, it was difficult to keep in step. Still, the disjointed cacophony lent an extra element of hilarity to the scene.

Paraders were not all somberly dressed. The woman with the bright orange dress caught my eye. I liked her handle-bar mustache. The fellow with the coffin follows behind. Even though his burden was light, I suspected that his arms would get tired long before he reached the plaza.

A giant skull with fireworks attached marched along on two blue jean-clad legs. The rockets are attached to flimsy reed wheels on either side, kind of like ears. When the parade reaches the plaza, he will light the fuse. As the rockets ignite, the wheels will begin to spin and throw off showers of sparks. The two-legged skull will then rush back and forth through the crowd, causing people to jump and flee, sometimes tripping over one another. Great peals of laughter will ensue. Any vacationing US or Canadian fire inspectors will no doubt collapse with heart palpitations.

More marchers, this time in brilliant red. The woman is accompanied by two muscular (although dead) jocks in sleeveless shirts. Whoever sells all this white greasepaint must be making a fortune. Maybe this year I'll see if someone will do me up like this to go with my skull t-shirt.

A handsome pair of spooks. I pondered long on the best photo to conclude this posting. This couple seemed a perfect fit. Their expressions fully captured the good humor of the whole affair. If you possibly can, participate in a Dia de los Muertos. It will be a truly unforgettable experience!

This completes my posting on the 2016 Dia de los Muertos. I hope you'e enjoyed it and, if so, that you will leave any questions or thoughts in the Comments section below, or email me directly. If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Archangel Michael, surrounded by souls in Purgatory. In Catholic dogma, Purgatory is kind of God's waiting room. Michael's job is to weigh the souls (animas) to see if they should go to Heaven or get on the "down" escalator. Animas del Purgatorio was painted by Miguel Cabrera (1695-1768), as were all the other paintings inside the church. In his time, he was considered the finest artist of Nueva España (New Spain). The painting is part of a retablo (altarpiece) that stands in a chapel on the left side of the main nave. Of the twelve retablos that cover the walls, side chapels, and main altar of Parroquia Santa Prisca, this is the only one not dedicated to the Virgin Mary, Jesus, or a saint. The beauty and complexity of these massive Churrigueresque works of art are truly overwhelming. In this posting, you will see eight of the twelve retablos and I'll tell you a little about the statues and paintings on each. I can't show all the altar pieces because poor lighting resulted in some unsatisfactory results. However, even if all the photos had turned out well, the sheer number would have made this posting much too long. You'll just have to see these exquisite creations for yourself. For a schematic showing the exact locations of all of the retablos within Santa Prisca, click here.

The main nave and altar

The nave, facing the main altar. In Spanish, nave means ship. A nave in a church is a long narrow room with an arched roof, kind of like the hull of an upturned boat. Retablos line the walls and extend from floor to ceiling. Colonial mining magnate José de la Borda financed the church and assembled the best artists of Nueva España to decorate the interior. Santa Prisca has always been a very popular venue for weddings, funerals, and other special masses. As a result, access for photographs is limited. We had to return several times to find an occasion when we could wander about without disturbing a religious service. Even between masses, there were always a few people praying in the pews. Fortunately, photography is a very quiet activity.

The Altar Mayor's retablo resembles the facade of the church entrance. If you look closely, you can see the form of a giant cross. On either side of the cross are statues of Santa Prisca (L) and San Sebastian (R), in the same positions they occupy on the entrance facade. Massive, intricately carved pilasters frame the Altar Mayor. In Spanish, retablo means "board behind". Retablos are elaborately carved wooden structures that stand in the rear of an altar area. They are often covered with gold leaf and filled with niches containing paintings of biblical scenes or statues of religious figures. These structures originated in Europe during the period of the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance. Churrigueresqueretablos leave no space undecorated, and this is especially true at Parroquia Santa Prisca.

Altar Mayor detail showing Santa Prisca among a multitude of other figures. In the center, Santa Prisca holds a palm leaf in her right hand while clutching her Roman robes with her left. Legends about Santa Prisca can be found in Part 4 of this series. In addition to Santa Prisca, this small section of the retablo contains at least 31 other statues or faces of popes, saints, angels, and putti (cherubs). Can you find them all? Are there any that I missed? Churrigueresque truly is Baroque on steroids.

An ornate pipe organ stands in the choir loft at the rear of the church. Like the retablos, the organ is decorated with various putti and religious figures. The finials found at the top corners of the organ and on the railing mimic those found on the outside of the church. The earliest known organs were invented in Greece during the 3rd century BC. The wind supply was driven by water pressure. During the 6th and 7th centuries AD, hand-pumped bellows replaced water pressure. Organs didn't arrive in Western Europe until 757 AD, when the Byzantine Emperor Constantine V sent one to Frankish King Pepin as a gift. Emperor Charlemagne, Pepin's successor, ordered another for his personal chapel in 812 AD. The golden age of organs was the Baroque period of the 17th and 18th centuries, when this one was created. Not only did the instruments gain their full musical range, but organs became works of art

La Capilla de los Naturales

Retablo de Animas del Purgatorio is located in the Capilla de los Naturales. on the left wall. The chapel contains Retablo de Animas del Purgatorio you see above, plus two others in wings extending out from either side. The entrance is framed by two elegantly carved stone pilasters reaching to the ceiling of the nave. Capilla de los Naturales (Chapel of the Natives) got its name when it was designated as the space reserved for indigenous people whom José de la Borda didn't want mixing with the aristocracy. Another large painting by Cabrera arches over the entrance of the Capilla between the pilasters. The theme of the Capilla has led to its use for services honoring the dead.

Top detail of Retablo de Animas del Purgatorio. Three small paintings highlight this section of the retablo. The Virgen del Carmen occupies the center, with Cristo Redentor (Christ the Redeemer) on the left and the Virgen de la Inmaculada on the right. In Catholic doctrine all three figures are closely associated with saving souls. I always find it interesting that the Virgin Mary, in one or another of her many incarnations, occupies so central a position in the Catholic churches I visit. Images or statues of God are generally absent. Jesus is often (but not always) represented, but he nearly always takes a secondary position to the Virgin, as he does in this retablo. This seems especially odd to me since Catholicism, as an institution, excludes women from nearly all positions of power and authority.

Retablo de Jesus Nazareno occupies a niche to the left of the Animas retablo. This is one of the few places in Santa Prisca where Jesus is the central focus. Yet even here, he is off to one side of the Capilla, which is itself a secondary area of the church. There are several statues of Jesus in front of the retablo, as well as a painting of him in its center. The retablo and its statues are dedicated to the Passion of Jesus of Nazareth, i.e. the series of events that led to Jesus' death. The central painting shows Jesus with the cross, on the way to Calvary Hill, assisted by putti.

Detail of Retablo de Jesus Nazareno showing its upper section. The painting in the center is of the crucifixion. Surrounding it are numerous putti. The statues of two richly-dressed men stand on either side of the painting. They are Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea, wealthy supporters of Jesus as well as members of the Sanhedrin, the supreme council of the Jewish people in Jesus' time. Both men are mentioned in the New Testament. After the crucifixion, they claimed the body from the Romans and placed it in a tomb on Nicodemas' property. This probably put them at odds with other Sanhedrin members, who had demanded Jesus' execution.

Retablo de la Virgen de la Concepción, also known as la Inmaculada. This niche in the Capilla de los Naturales is to the right of the Animas retablo. The "Immaculate Conception" of Mary doesn't refer to her conception of Jesus, but to her own immaculate conception in the womb of Santa Ana, her mother. It's all part of the rather complicated mental gymnastics developed by the Church over the millennia to explain Jesus' family relationships. If Jesus was truly the Son of God, he obviously couldn't have been born with the stain of the Original Sin passed down from Adam and Eve. By extension, neither could Mary, his mother. The Church holds that she was conceived in the normal biological way, but that God excused her from the burden of Original Sin. All this wasn't finally settled in Catholic dogma 1854, following almost 1500 years of discussion and wrangling. Apparently the holy dispensation stopped there, because Mary's parents, Joaquin and Ana, were held to be normal mortals conceived in the usual way. Not wanting to slight them, however, the Church made them saints. Statues of San Joaquin and Santa Ana stand on the retablo to the left and right of the painting of the Virgin Mary.

Statue of San Joaquin, the Virgin Mary's father, on the Retablo de la Virgin de la Concepcíon. Surrounded by cavorting putti, he sports a halo and rich robes. Joaquin and his wife Anaare not mentioned in the New Testament. Stories about them originated in the Gospel of James, one of the books that didn't make it into the New Testament. Still, Jesus' maternal grandparents have become part of Church "traditions." Following the death of Jesus, memories of actual people and events began to fade. As ordinary people struggled to make sense of the new religion, they found it necessary to fill in a lot of blanks with myths and legends. Early Church leaders were concerned that all these evolving stories would lead devotees in directions that threatened the leadership's power and authority. So, over the centuries they gathered in a series of Councils to nail down the versions of the stories that best suited the developing institutional interests of the Church. These were political decisions clad in religious garments. Those unofficial stories which the Church was unable to suppress were gradually incorporated as traditions. The parentage and family relationships of a key figure like Mary were especially important.

Top section of Retablo de Virgen de la Concepción. The painting in the center depicts the Holy Trinity and, once again, is surrounded by winged putti. On the left side of the retablo is Simeón el anciano (Simon the Elder). On the right side is Ana el profetisa (Anna the Prophetess). Neither wears a halo, indicating they are not considered saints. However, unlike many figures in Santa Prisca's retablos, both of these people are mentioned in the New Testament. The are part of the description of Jesus' first presentation at the Temple in Jerusalem as a baby. Under Jewish religious law, a woman was considered unclean for 40 days after giving birth and could not enter the Temple during that time. According to the New Testament, Simeon took the new baby in his arms and immediately recognized Jesus as the Messiah. Ana, for her part, announced to all that the child was extraordinary and thus gained fame as a prophetess. The occasion is celebrated as the Fiesta de Candelaria on February 2.

The Retablos of the Nave

Retablo de San Juan Nepomuceno stands to the left of the entrance of Capilla de los Naturales. As a child, Juan Nepomuceno (? - 1385) was cured of disease through the prayers of his parents, so they decided his future should be in the Church. He became a famous preacher in the city of Prague (modern Czech Republic) where he was invited to be the Queen's confessor. The King was cruel and jealous and demanded to know what the Queen said in confession. Juan repeatedly refused to say, even under torture. Eventually, the disgusted King ordered him drowned in Prague's Vitava River. He is known as the "martyr of the confessional" who set the example of devotion to priestly duties. For this reason his retablo is populated with the statues of many other priests.

San Juan Nepomuceno(center) stands in a glass case surrounded by other saints. On the far left is the rather sinister San Pedro Arbués (1441-1485). As a member of the Spanish Inquisition, he was assassinated (the Church would say martyred) because of his atrocities against so-called heretics and Jews. San Vicente Apaulo (St. Vincent de Paul, 1581-1660) stands to San Pedro's right. A far more benign character, San Vicente was a French priest who had humble origins and a colorful life. Enslaved by Muslim pirates in North Africa, he eventually escaped. San Vicente worked with the poor and sick and founded seminaries to educate priests. To the right of the glass case is San Felix (? - 250 AD), who was beaten and tortured during the persecutions under Roman Emperor Decius. During the persecutions, Felix saved Bishop Maximus by hiding him in a vacant building. According to legend, a spider quickly built a web across the door, fooling the searching soldiers. Because of his suffering, Felix is considered a martyr, but he actually died a natural death. On the far right of the retablo is San Lorenzo Levita, a 3rd century AD Spanish deacon and treasurer of Pope Sixtus II. In 258 AD, Roman Emperor Valerian ordered all Church wealth confiscated and all its officials executed. Sixtus was beheaded and San Lorenzo was ordered to produce the treasure. Instead, he distributed it to the poor and sick and announced that those people were the treasures of the Church. In response, the Roman prefect roasted Lorenzo alive on a gridiron. Legend says that after a considerable time over the fire, the saint told the prefect to "turn me over, I'm done on this side!"

Top detail of Retablo de San Juan Nepomuceno shows three more priests. The three priests above are all Jesuits connected with evangelism. At the top is San Francisco Borja (1510-1572), a Spaniard whose father was a Duke and whose mother was the daughter of a Viceroy. Even as a child Francisco Borja wanted to become a monk but his parents sent him to serve Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor. Francisco married, but after his wife died, he joined the new Jesuit Order, soon becoming one of Ignatius Loyola's closest advisors. Francisco eventually became head of the Order and greatly expanded missionary work. San Francisco Xavier (1506-1552), on the right, was another Spanish aristocrat, whose father was president of the Royal Council of the Kings of Navarre. Francisco Xavier attended university at the Sorbonne in Paris. There he met and became a loyal follower of Ignatius Loyola a fellow student and founder the Jesuits. Francisco Xavier's Jesuit evangelism took him to Africa, India, the East Indies, and even Japan. He died while waiting for transportation to China. The third figure, on the lower left, is identified only as Santo Misonaro, a Jesuit missionary.

Retablo de San José, honoring Jesus' father. This retablo stands to the right of the entrance to the Capilla de los Naturales. It is sometimes called the Altarpiece of the Family of Jesus because it not only contains San José holding the baby Jesus, but parents, grandparents, and cousins. The Virgin Mary's father, San Joaquin, and grandfather, Estolano stand to the left of San José. Her mother, Santa Ana, and grandmother, Emerenciana appear to the right. Mary's grandparents, Estolano and Emerenciana, are not saints and neither are mentioned in the New Testament. More family are above, including Jesus' cousin, San Juan Bautista (John the Baptist, at top of retablo). San Juan's father, San Zaccaria, is below and to the left. His wife, and the Virgin Mary's cousin, Santa Isabel is on the right.

Detail of Retablo de San José.San José holds the baby Jesus, with San Joaquin on the left and Santa Ana on the right. Notice the book carried in Santa Ana's left arm. According to Church tradition, Ana taught Mary to read. Even in this relatively small space, the sculptor managed to include 14 putti.

Retablo de la Virgen de Guadalupe is framed by two large white pilasters topped by an arch. The retablo stands at the left end of the transept. A transept is a section of a church that lies across the nave, near the main altar. Thus, the whole structure of the church forms a cross. This is one of the most elaborate of the twelve altarpieces, befitting the Virgin of Guadalupe's position as patroness of New Spain (and later Mexico). Nationalist sentiment was already growing in the mid-18th century. In a little over 50 years, the people of New Spain would begin their fight for independence from Spain. From the very start, the rebel army's flag displayed the Virgin of Guadalupe. In addition to numerous statues and almost innumerable putti, there are a total of eight paintings.

Detail of Retablo de Virgen de Guadalupe showing seven of the eight paintings. In the center is the Virgin herself, in the pose and attire in which she is nearly always displayed. To understand more about the origin of this version of Mary and why it became such a powerful political symbol in colonial and post-colonial Mexico, click here. The six small, oval paintings show a series of scenes detailing her legend. She first appeared in New Spain in 1531, only a decade after the fall of the Aztec Empire. The four statues below the paintings include (L to R) an unidentified saint, San Julian, San Malaquias, and San Leandro. At the very bottom, in the center, is the figure of San Simpliciano of Milan, wearing the hat of an archbishop. All these figures were bishops or archbishops during the period spanning 600 AD to 1200 AD. It was a time of great crises for the Church. It had to cope with post-Roman barbarian invasions, the chaos of the Dark Ages, the rise if Islam, and the Crusades. The two figures holding crosses, San Julian and San Leandro, were noted for their evangelical work among the pagan Visigoths and the Islamic Saracens.

Retablo de la Virgen del Pilar stands on the right side of the church near the main entrance. It is called the Altarpiece of the Choir of Archangels because it contains statues of all seven archangels, as well as the Virgin Mary and several martyred saints. The Virgen del Pilar is in the glass box in the center. According to legend, Santiago Apostol (St. James the Apostle) encountered her while he was praying. She was standing on a pillar beside the River Ebro outside the city of Zaragoza, Spain. Santiago Apostol was later renamed Santiago Matamoros (Moorslayer). In this new guise, he became the patron of Spain and Spanish conquistadors. However, biblical scholars dispute that St. James ever visited Spain and, if not, it would have been impossible for him to have encountered the Virgin Mary there. In any case, she became the patroness of the Kingdom of Aragon, of which Zaragoza was the capital. Not coincidentally, José de la Borda, Santa Prisca's financier, was born in Huesca Province, which adjoins Zaragoza.

Detail of Retablo de la Virgen del Pilar. In the glass case, a small statue of Mary, holding Jesus, stands atop a marble pillar. Around her stand four archangels, wings aflutter. They are (L to R) San Raziel (also known as Uriel), who expelled Adam and Eve from Paradise following their indiscretion with the apple; San Baraquiel, the Adjutor (assistant) to God; San Jeudiel, the rewarder and punisher who is sometimes shown carrying a whip; San Sealtiel, the intercessor who, in the Old Testament, stopped Abraham from sacrificing his son Isaac. Outside the frame of the photo, in the top section, are San Miguel, San Gabriel, and San Rafael, the Big Three.

This completes my posting on the interior of Parroquia Santa Prisca. I hope you have enjoyed it and, if so, you will leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below. If you have my email, you can also send your comments directly. If you do place a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Parroquia Santa Prisca from the entance of Calle Cuauhtemoc. Above, one of the ubiquitous white VW taxis enters Calle Cuauhtemoc from Plaza Borda. As a pleasant change of pace, I decided to take you on a stroll through the narrow, winding, colonial-era streets. Even in the face of the intense pressures of modernity, Taxco has managed to maintain its ancient ambiance. The streets were originally designed for pedestrians, horses and the occasional carriage. Automobiles were unimagined when these narrow passages were mapped out. The calles (streets) twist and turn in unexpected ways as they follow the contours of the terrain. In this posting, we'll proceed along Calle Cuautemoc to Plazuela de San Juan and then turn downhill on Calle Hidalgo, finally ending at Parque Vicente Guerrero, dedicated to a hero of the War of Independence.

Calle Cuauhtemoc

The cobbles in the streets were laid out in abstract designs. Notice the lack of sidewalks. None can be found anywhere except along the carretera (highway) that passes through the lower part of town. Calle Cuauhtemoc is named after the last Aztec Emperor who surrendered to Hernán Cortéz. He was tortured in an attempt to uncover the sources of Aztec gold and later executed by Cortéz on trumped up charges. Today, Cuauhtemoc is considered an heroic figure. The street is one-way, but walking can be tricky. Sometimes, pedestrians must step into doorways to get out of the way. As with most of Taxco, the structures along this street are primarily two-story, although some have roof terraces.

Beautiful hand-made jewelry was laid out on a simple cloth placed on the cobbles. Street vendors are everywhere in Mexico, usually selling the same sort of mass-produced nicknacks. Sometimes, however, the vendors are talented artists selling unique items.

Another vendor set up her wares on a local fountain. The natural world of Mexico is full of vivid colors. These are often reflected in the handicrafts and artwork you encounter here. In another cultural context, the color schemes might seem garish and clashing. In Mexico, with its wild profusion of plants whose multi-colored flowers blossom year-round, the hues of the handicrafts seem completely natural.

I have no idea what this was about. The VW above passed by as we waited to cross the street. My first thought was a wedding, but there was no procession in front or behind. The famous Spanish Surrealist Salvador Dali once visited Mexico, intending to do some painting here. After a relatively short time, he left the country in disgust. Dali said it was impossible to do Surrealist art here because Mexico was completely Surreal already. I tend to agree.

Plazuela de San Juan

Plazuela de San Juan is centered on a fountain from which a star radiates. A plazuela is a small plaza. In the background are various restaurants and small tiendas (stores). Most of these structures, as well as those surrounding the rest of the plazuela, were built during colonial times. The construction is of adobe covered with white plaster and roofed with red clay tiles.

Restaurante El Adobe sits above a shop selling t-shirts and handicrafts. Many of Taxco's restaurants and bars are on the 2nd floor and have balconies in their windows. These are great places to have a leisurely meal while casually watching the activities in the plazuela below. While we never ate at El Adobe ourselves, our Fodor guidebook listed it as a good restaurant.

A little mariachi music, anyone? My eye was caught by this full-size statue of a mariachi guitarist. It stands outside the entrance of a small t-shirt shop. Mariachi music originated in the pueblo of Cocula in the state of Jalisco, where I live. The music became popular throughout the country and is one of the most recognized symbols of Mexico.

Restaurante La Hamburguesa was our favorite breakfast spot during our visit. The restaurant is upstairs and serves not only hamburgers but a variety of other dishes. The owners had to get special permission to build the little terrace into the sloping roof because local rules restrict any changes to historic structures. The friendly woman who owns and operates the restaurant told us that the building has belonged to her family for 200 years.

View of Plazuela de San Juan from La Hamburguesa's roof terrace. In the upper right, the steeples of Parroquia Santa Prisco rise to the heavens. The plazuela is a traffic circle, or glorieta as the Mexicans would call it. Nearly all the other vehicles in the photo are either VW taxis or colectivos (a sort of miniature bus). There is no lack of public transportation in Taxco, if you don't care to walk.

Another view from our favorite breakfast spot. I was intrigued by the building in the background. It appears to be a hotel. It may have always been that, or perhaps it was someone's mansion back in the old silver mining days.

Restaurant El Adobe sits directly across a narrow lane from La Hamburguesa.El Adobe must have just opened for breakfast, because all my other photos show the balcony tables filled with diners. The street below is very narrow and one morning some workmen dug a huge hole in one side of it. Almost immediately, traffic backed up for blocks. Drivers tried, one at a time, to negotiate the passage without plunging into the hole. Only the most minimal barriers protected the workers. As we ate our breakfast, I fully expected to see a car topple onto them. The whole episode was quite entertaining, in a macabre sort of way. It was kind of like a dinner show featuring a live a train wreck.

Calle Hidalgo

Calle Hidalgo drops down from Plazuela de San Juan in front of Hotel Santa Prisca. A pedestrian walkway heads up to the hotel's entrance while Calle Hidalgo heads down. There are several other hotels situated around Plazuela de San Juan as well. In the photo, it is mid-morning and people are just heading to work. I have noticed that most Mexican towns and villages don't really get going until after 10:00 AM. On the other hand, they stay active until fairly late in the evening. My kind of hours!

An elderly violinist played his heart out as we walked down Hidalgo. Mexico is full of street musicians, many of them quite good. They play for whatever tips that passersby are willing to offer. I nearly always give generously because they add real value to my life. Also, it's a hard way to make a living and I like to help out where I can.

Several blocks down Hidalgo, I focused my camera back up the street toward the mountains. This is a one-way street, fortunately, and the vehicles usually stayed on their side of the center line. However, it's always wise to keep a wary eye on the folks riding motor scooters. The street was so narrow that people can easily stand on the balconies on either side and converse in a normal tone of voice.

Mexican whimsy in a local pharmacy. I happened to peek in the door and spotted this prancing, mechanical hobby horse. I was particularly charmed by his sombrero. Mexicans have a wonderful sense of humor that is often expressed in unexpected ways. I also checked out the prices for some of the drugs on the purple list. Prednisone is a common drug used for inflammation associated with conditions like arthritis. In the US, 10 tablets go for $4.84 at Walmart. In this farmacia, the same number of tablets cost $22.00 pesos ($1.06 USD), a savings of 78%. And, yes, they work just the same. For prescription drugs, the cost savings can be even greater.

Young Mexicans hang out at the local fountain. They eyed us curiously as we strolled by. Although Taxco gets a lot of Mexican tourists, we saw few foreigners during our visit. From colonial times until the early 20th century, fountains like this functioned as the primary water source for pueblo neighborhoods. The fountains were fed by aqueducts, sometimes of considerable length. In addition to their basic function, such fountains have always been social gathering places, even into the 21st century.

Older Mexicans chat in the shade of Parque Vicente Guerrero. Such parks, with their shady trees and lush gardens, are popular refuges from the heat of the mid-day sun. At the end of the walkway, you can see a small fountain and behind it a statue of the Independence War hero Vicente Guerrero.

Erect and defiant, Vicente Guerrero stands in the middle of the park that bears his name.Vicente Ramón Guerrero Saldaña (1782 - 1831) was born in the town of Tixtla in what later became the state of Guerrero. His mother was of African descent and his father was mestizo (mixed Spanish and indigenous). Guerrero was an ardent supporter of independence from Spain and quickly joined the forces of José Maria Morelos when the insurgency broke out in 1810. He famously told his father, a supporter of Spanish rule, that the will of a father is sacred, but the Fatherland comes first. During the war, most of the independence movement's leaders either died in battle or were captured and executed. Guerrero was the last major leader left and he kept the movement alive through guerrilla warfare. Ultimately, the Spanish royalist commander realized that the war was a stalemate and cut a deal with Guerrero to support independence. Guerrero became President in 1829 and was a liberal folk hero who supported Mexico's downtrodden classes. Among other reforms, he abolished slavery and promoted equal civil rights for all Mexicans. As a mixed race reformer, he was disliked and distrusted by the conservative elite of Mexico. They organized a coup and this set off a short civil war. In February of 1831, Guerrero was betrayed, captured, and faced a firing squad a month later. His execution was widely denounced as "judicial murder" and viewed as racially motivated.

This completes Part 6 of my Taxco series. In the next posting we'll take a look at three small neighborhood churches along Calle Hidalgo and an adjoining street. They date back as far as the 16th century. If you enjoyed this posting and would like to ask a question or leave a comment, please either use the Comments section below or email me directly.

If you leave a question, PLEASE leave your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

View through the entrance gate of Capilla de la Santisima Trinidad. While strolling down Calle Hidalgo, Carole and I visited several neighborhood chapels, some dating back to the 16th century. Capilla de la Santisima Trinidad (Chapel of the Holy Trinity) is situated several blocks from Plaza Borda, at the confluence of three streets: Calles Hidalgo, Cenaobscuras, and Morelos. In this posting we'll examine the architecture and furnishings of three of these old chapels: La Santisima Trinidad, San Nicolas Tolentino, and San Miguel Arcangel.

Capilla de la Santisima Trinidad

Street view of La Santisima Trinidad. Notice the rough stone work of the peripheral wall and of the church's exterior walls. These features date from the 16th century. Every colonial city was built according to a standard plan devised by King Phillip II, of Spanish Armada fame. A town would be laid out around a central plaza, with the most important church on one side. In Taxco's case these are Plaza Borda and Parroquia Santa Prisca (see Parts 2, 4 & 5 of this series) The wealthiest Spaniards built homes on, or adjacent to, the plaza. People of lesser wealth and social status lived in concentric circles radiating out from the center. The indigenous population was the poorest and so lived in the outlying barrios (neighborhoods). La Santisima Trinidad serviced one of these barrios.

View of the church from inside the peripheral walls.La Santisima Trinidad has a single bell tower and is surrounded by a flagstone patio. After visiting quite a large number colonial structures during my nine years in Mexico, I have learned to recognize the era in which they were built. The earliest churches were constructed of adobe with thatched roofs. Few of these survived into modern times. Most were replaced within a few decades by structures built with rough, uncut stones, like those you see above. If there were pre-hispanic structures in the area, particularly temples, these were sometimes cannibalized for building materials. However, no such structures existed in the immediate area around Taxco. Although the interior of La Santisima Trinidad was remodeled in later centuries, the exterior retains its 16th century appearance.

The church interior is simple, with a single nave and no side-chapels. The stark white walls are decorated with various statues and religious paintings. The altar, seen at the far end of the nave, is of the Neo-Classic design. This style became popular in the late 18th century and remained so through most of the 19th century, Notice the robed statue on the wall at the extreme right center of the photo. This is Nuestra Señora de los Dolores (Our Lady of the Sorrows), one of the many manifestations of the Virgin Mary.

The altar is topped with a triangle enclosing the Eye of Providence, surrounded by a sunburst. I was curious about its association with La Santisima Trinidad. The Eye of Providence, also known as the All-Seeing Eye of God, has been an important symbol for centuries. In fact, it appears on the back side of the Great Seal of the United States and on the $1.00 bill. During the Renaissance, the image was used to symbolize the concept of the Trinity. Therein lies, its connection with La Santisima Trinidad. The All-Seeing Eye was not an original part of the 16th century church, since the use of a sunburst in the symbol didn't come into practice until the 17th century. It was probably added when the church was remodeled in the 18th century.

Our Lady of Sorrows. Nuestra Señora de los Dolores(Our Lady of Sorrows) is one of several statues in La Santisima Trinidad that are taken out and paraded through the streets during religious festivals. The "sorrows" refer to seven sorrowful moments Mary had during Jesus' life, including his crucifixion. She is sometimes depicted with seven arrows puncturing her heart.

Capilla de San Nicolas Tolentino

Capilla de San Nicolas Tolentino stands on Calle Hidalgo, facing Parque Vicente Guerrero. This 16th century Augustinian chapel was constructed using the same kind of rough stones as La Santisima Trinidad. However, some cut stones were used on the corners as you can see above.

The Capilla's facade and steeple. The single steeple has openings for four bells, which are rung by hand. The Neo-Classical facade, with its four pilasters supporting a triangular pediment, was probably added in the 18th century. When we visited, the church had an antique feel about it. Even so, it is one of the most active of the neighborhood chapels.

Carole walks up the aisle of the single nave. The wood ceiling was fairly unusual. That and the stained white walls added to the sense of antiquity. Aside from the altar area, the interior of the church contained few decorations. These included small paintings marking the Stations of the Cross, two depictions of a crucified Jesus, a scene of souls in purgatory, and a small altar to San Charbel Maklouf. Except for the electric lights, it would be easy to feel that one had stepped back into the 16th century.

The main altar contains five statues. The central figure is San Nicolas Tolentino, for whom the Capilla is named. On the lower left is San Rafael Arcangel and to the right is San Gabriel Arcangel. Above are two figures, a woman on the left and a man to the right. These I haven't been able to identify, but they appear to be of 16th or 17th century origin.

San Nicolas was an Italian saint who lived in the town of Tolentino during the Middle Ages.San Nicolas Tolentino (1245 - 1305) was a mystic who gained a great reputation by ministering to the poor. Nicolas joined the Augustinian Order at the age of 16 and was ordained at 25. He acted as a peacemaker during the civil strife in Tolentino between supporters of the Pope and those of the Holy Roman Emperor. According to legend, he cured the sick by feeding them bread over which he had prayed. This was the origin of the Augustinian custom of blessing and distributing St. Nicholas bread. It is a practice continued at the Capilla to this day. Nicolas also fasted, but those around him felt he went too far, sometimes endangering his own health. However, the fasting provided him with visions, particularly of Purgatory. In Catholic belief, this is where souls are purified before being allowed to enter Heaven. As a result, Nicolas spent much time praying for the souls in Purgatory and he is considered their Patron. Notice the small whip held in his right hand.

San Nicolas used a whip like this for self-flagellation. The barbed tip has been painted red to simulate fresh blood. The practice of beating oneself with a whip to drive out sin began in the 13th century during Nicolas' lifetime. As a mystic, he was attracted to this extraordinary ritual because it helped produce his sublime visions. I find it intriguing that the pre-hispanic Aztecs produced similar results using manta ray spines to self-pierce the tongue or the genitals. In both cases, the practitioners sought a mystical connection with higher forces through the infliction of intense pain on their own bodies. Although the Church condemned self-flagellation in the 14th century, it remains common in a few Catholic countries, including Mexico.

Souls in Purgatory. I had envisioned Purgatory as a crowded, uncomfortable and thoroughly boring place of interminable waiting, kind of like the boarding gate at an airport. However, apparently Purgatory is a lot more Hellish than that. Flames shoot up around the nude figures of a man and a woman. Between them stands a third figure also nude except for his bishop's mitre (hat). Apparently, even high church officials had plenty of sins to expiate. This vignette was created to celebrate San Nicolas' role as Patron of Souls in Purgatory.

Parroquia de San Miguel Arcangel

View from the inside of Parroquia San Miguel's main gate, looking out. The street outside is Calle Morelos, which branches off Hidalgo near Capilla San Nicolas. I had wanted to shoot from the street, using this beautiful gate to frame the church. However, as usual in Mexico, some bright soul decided to string multiple power/telephone lines in front of the church,. This prevented any clean, unobstructed shots until you are well inside the gate.. Mexican power, telephone, and cable lines are the bane of my photographic life here.

View from the steps of the church back toward central Taxco and the mountain slopes. This area sits above the street and is known as Plazuela San Miguel. It contains both a broad patio and a lush garden, altogether a great spot to rest yourself in the shade of its trees. Although we experienced some rain in the late evenings, most of our days in Taxco were like this one, brilliantly sunny with blue skies.

Parroquia San Miguel Arcangel is one of the oldest churches in Taxco. When it was built in the 16th century, it was originally dedicated to San Sebastian. However, in the 18th century the church was re-dedicated to the Archangel St. Michael, the warrior angel who is believed to be the commander of God's armies ranged against Satan's forces. A weather-worn and partially damaged statue of San Miguel stands in a niche above the choir window. Like San Nicolas Tolentino, this church exudes antiquity, at least on the exterior.

An brass bell, greenish with age, hangs from a wooden cross-piece in the belfry. This is the lower of the the belfry's two levels. Each contains space for four bells. Notice the two worn figures on either side of the opening. I have no information to identify them, but they may be angels or putti (cupids). There is evidence of brickwork underneath the chipped plaster. This may indicate a later date for the steeple than for the church itself. Bricks didn't come into widespread use in New Spain until the 18th century. It was not uncommon for steeples to be added well after the main structure was completed.

The interior of Parroquia San Miguel shows a strong Neo-Classic influence. This includes stark, relatively undecorated walls and ceiling, with Greco-Roman columns around the altar. Carole can be seen in the lower right of the photo, sitting in a pew.

San Miguel Arcangel, wielding his customary sword with one hand and a cross with the other. The two columns of pink cantera that frame the statue are topped with Ionic capitals, a definite Neo-Classic touch. St. Michael the Archangel is revered by multiple religious, including Judaism, Islam and Christianity. Within Christianity, he is part of Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutheran religious traditions.

Santiago Matamoros, the Patron of Spain and of conquistadors in the New World. Another warrior figure prominent in the church is Santiago Matamoros (St. James the Moor Slayer). He is St James the Elder, one of the Twelve Apostles. His association with Spain is probably mythical, according to biblical scholars. Nevertheless, he became a great symbol for Christians during the Reconquista (Re-conquest) of Spain from the Muslim Moors. The New World was discovered the same year as the final defeat of Spain's Moors. As a result, the Moor Slayer was reassigned the job of sponsoring the conquest and slaughter of indigenous people of New Spain and Peru.

A remarkably realistic portrayal of Christ on the cross. Although I have not been able to verify it, this may be one of the famous cornstalk statues that were created by Purépecha craftmen in Michoacan in the 16th century. They were made from the core of dried and ground up corn stalks, mixed with the boiled bulbs of begonia and orchidea. The result was a very light and malleable substance, ideal for sculpting. The pre-hispanic Purépecha invented the process in order to create statues of their various deities. Since they took their gods into battle with them, and it was sacrilege to leave them behind if they had to flee, a very light, cornstalk statue had a distinct advantage over one of stone or wood. The Spanish adopted the technique for Christian statues, particularly those of the crucified Christ.

A moment of veneration. As I turned to leave, I saw this man standing at the cornstalk statue and instinctively took a photo. It wasn't until after I enlarged the photo in my computer that I realized what he was doing. After he had prayed for some time, he extended his arm up to touch the feet of the statue, as a final act of devotion.

This completes Part 7 of my Taxco series. If you have enjoyed it and would like to leave a question or a comment, please do so in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you leave a question, PLEASE leave your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

View of ex-Convento de San Bernardino de Siena from the Angel Inn restaurant balcony. In the background, sheer cliffs rising hundreds of feet provide a dramatic backdrop. Attached to the convent's church is a white building with a red tile roof and five arched windows. This was once part of the convent complex. Behind the ex-Convento, you can see the white steeples of Parroquia Chavarrieta, another of the small churches serving the barrios of Taxco. The ex-Convento is located along Calle Juarez, another of this Magic Pueblo's wonderful walking streets. Juarez stretches from Plaza Borda down to the Carretera (highway) near the eastern entrance to the city. Unlike many of Taxco's streets, Juarez'grade is relatively gentle, making for easy walking. In this posting, we'll look at the ex-Convento and the ex-Haciennda de Chorillo, both built in the 16th century. To locate these sites on a Google map of Taxco, click here.

Ex-Convento de San Bernardino de Siena

Calle Juarez makes a "dog-leg" turn where it meets Plazuela del ex-Convento. The Plazuela is a small plaza which adjoins the church. Ex-Convento de San Bernardino de Siena was built in 1592 by a Franciscan friar named Francisco de Torantos. The initial work was financed by Antonio Verru Bravo, a wealthy Taxco silver miner. However, construction funds ran out before the convent was complete, so the rest had to be financed with alms. In 1802, the original adobe church burned down. When it was rebuilt with stone in 1804, a Neo-classic facade was added to the original Romanesque structure. The convento is named after San Bernardino de Siena (1380 - 1444), a Franciscan friar. In his early career, he threw all of his considerable energy into helping the sick. Later, he began to preach with such impact that some towns refused to let him leave unless he promised to return. Even when he was dying, San Bernardino preached for 50 consecutive days. He refused various offers of a bishop's position, but eventually became Vicar General of the Franciscan Order. Pope Pius II called him the "second Paul".

The church nave shows a strong Neo-classic influence. The Convento played a role in the War of Independence from Spain. In 1821, the war was at a stalemate, with the insurgents unable to beat the royalists, and the royalists unable to stamp them out. Political changes back in Spain prompted royalist General Agustin Iturbide to approach his opponent, the insurgent General Vicente Guerrero, with a proposal to an end to the conflict. Iturbide used the Convento as the site to draft the Plan de Iguala, which is also called the Plan Trigarante (Plan of the Three Guarantees). The Plan established Mexican independence with three guarantees: a constitutional monarchy; an official religion of Roman Catholicism; and equal rights for Mexicans, whether they were born in Spain or Mexico. Vicente Guerrero recognized this as the best chance to end the war and win independence. He agreed to merge the insurgent and royalist armies and signed the Plan de Iguala. On August 24, 1821, the Spanish Viceroy ratified the Plan by signing the Treaty of Córdoba. With this, Mexico became an independent nation.

This Virgin of Montserrat is a copy of one of the most famous statues in Spain. The Spanish statue is kept at the Maria de Montserrat monastery on Montserrat Mountain in Catalonia. The original statue, sculpted from wood in Romanesque style, was probably carved in the 12th century. The Madonna and Child of Montserrat originally had much lighter complexions. Over the centuries, either candle smoke or chemical changes in the varnish caused the faces, hands, and feet to turn black. The copy seen here reflects the original's later appearance. The orb that the Virgin holds in her right hand represents the universe. San Pedro Nolasco (1189 - 1256) made a pilgrimage to visit the Virgin of Montserrat in 1203. As a result he was inspired to found the Order of the Blessed Virgin Mary for the Ransom of Captives to help Christians enslaved by the Moors. Three hundred years later, in 1522, a Spanish soldier named Ignatius Loyola visited the Montserrat shrine. There, he laid down his weapons forever, as the first step toward creating the Society of Jesus, or Jesuit Order.

Several of the statues above are carried in Taxco's various religious parades. In the center, under the crucifix, a female figure reaches up from the middle of roaring flames. This is called Anima Sola (the Lone Soul) and represents Purgatory, similar to a statue in the Capilla de San Nicolas Tolentino, seen in Part 7. To the right of Animal Sola is a statue of San Francisco (St. Francis of Assisi) who founded the Franciscan Order. To the left of Anima Sola is a small statue of San Judas Tadeo. He was one of the Twelve Apostles, but was not the Judas who betrayed Christ. Almost nothing is known of San Judas Tadeo because he is the least mentioned Apostle of the Gospels. Abhorring a vacuum of information, Catholic Tradition created a story for him. According to legend, San Judas Tadeo accompanied Simon the Zealot to Persia to evangelize. There, they were both arrested and executed for refusing to worship the local gods. There is some dispute over whether Judas' head was crushed with a mallet or cut off with an ax, but no disagreement about the result. The statue of the monk on the far left is unidentified.

San Margarito Flores Garcia was martyred during the Cristero War.Margarito Flores Garcia (1899 - 1927) was born in Taxco, and is still revered here. At 15, he started to study at the seminary in Chilopie, Guerrero. He became a priest in 1924, only two years before the outbreak of the Cristero War. This was a conflict between Mexico's revolutionary government and reactionaries closely allied with the Catholic Church. There were atrocities on both sides. These included summary executions of priests by government forces and the murders of farmworkers by the Catholic Cristeros. The government was breaking up the hacienda system and farmworkers, called agraristas, were trying to participate in the land redistribution program. The Cristeros had genuine issues about government religious repression, but they were also closely allied with the hacendados (hacienda owners). Many agraristas were murdered by Cristero death squads acting on behalf of the hacendados. Margarito Flores Garcia was one of a considerable number of priests who were arrested and executed for involvement with the Cristero movement. For this, Pope John Paul II sainted him in 2000, along with 24 other priests martyred during the war.

Statue of a participant in one of Taxco's unique religious parades. This is one of three very unusual statues standing behind the ex-Convento. During Semana Santa (Easter Week) members of several cofradias (religous brotherhoods) march in a series of parades over three days. The cofradias as a group are called penitentes (penitent ones) and all wear black hoods with eye holes. Except for the women, all are naked to the waist. Each cofradia acts out a different ritual. The man above is one of the Flagelentes. They carry 100 lb. crosses balanced on their extended arms. Periodically the Flagelentes hand the crosses to helpers and then lash their own bare backs with metal-studded whips. You can see the white-tipped whip hanging down from the Flagelente's right hand.

An Encruzado (crucified one) is strapped to a bundle of sharp-thorned blackberry canes. The bundles weigh 40-50 lbs, forcing the men to walk in a stooped position. The thorns pierce the bare flesh of the Encruzados' arms and shoulders as they walk along. Only when the procession pauses do helpers ease the weight of the bundles to give the Encruzados some relief.

The Animas (Souls) are from the only cofradia that permits women to join. Above, a female Anima carries two candles and walks in a hunched position. Local people sometimes refer to this group as "the bent ones". The Animas hobble along with chains around their ankles and they can only rest on their hands and knees when the procession stops. All three of the cofradias act out traditions dating far back into Medieval history. Over the centuries, the Church has attempted to suppress these rituals, but they continue in Taxco as if it were still the 12th century.

Ex-Hacienda del Chorrillo

This ancient stone structure may have once served as a gatehouse for the hacienda. There was no identifying sign, but its age and proximity to ex-Hacienda del Chorillo strongly suggest that the building was part of the complex, possibly providing some security for the entrance. The ex-Hacienda now functions as the School of Fine Arts of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM).

View through one of the arches of the hacienda's aqueduct. The building in the background was originally one of the hacienda's work structures. In 1524, only two years after his conquest of the Aztecs, Hernán Cortéz wrote a letter to the King of Spain reporting the discovery of silver near Taxco. The hacienda, originally named Cantarranas, was built to process the silver ore extracted from nearby mines. The water necessary for the extraction process flowed along this aqueduct, which was constructed by Spanish soldiers in 1534. The hacienda later became known as El Chorrillo, which means "steady trickle" in Spanish.

This is the building seen through the aqueduct arch. It may have been where the ore was crushed. Today it houses administrators and classroom space. Although the interior has certainly been remodeled, the rough stone walls of the exterior very likely date back to the 16th century. Hacienda del Chorrillo functioned as a silver processing operation continuously from Hernán Cortéz' day until the Mexican Revolution. However, at various times during the colonial period it was also used for religious and administrative purposes by the Church and by Spanish officials.

An antigue wooden gate provides a passageway between two of several patios. The "patio system" of ore processing was invented by Bartolomé de Medina in 1555. The aqueduct provided large amounts of water which was forced through the ore to help break it up and free silver particles. Then, in the patios, salt and mercury were used to leach silver from the crushed ore.

A smelter chimney stands in the corner of one of the patios. Its construction suggests that it was built in the 18th or 19th centuries when bricks became widely available. After leaching, heat was used to separate the mercury and other minerals from the silver. The molten silver was then cast into bars, most of which were shipped to Spain during the colonial period. Because of this, hard currency was chronically in short supply in Nueva España (Mexico), in spite of the colony being one of the chief sources of this flood of silver.

One of the ore-processing patios now functions as a student break area. The exterior of the stone building and the surface of the patio itself are probably original. Notice the fountain pool at the lower right of the photo.

The fountain's water emerges from a spout extending from the mouth of the sculpture. The statue is of a pre-hispanic god named Huehueteotl, the God of Fire. His name means "Old, Old God" and he may be the oldest deity in the whole pre-hispanic pantheon. The head dress contains a bowl where incense would have been burned during ceremonies. I could not determine whether the statue is an original or a copy.

Another patio contains a well and a small, wood-fired oven. During the Mexican Revolution (1910 - 1921), the hacienda was sacked and demolished by the revolutionary forces of Emiliano Zapata. After that, silver processing ceased and the hacienda stood in ruins for a couple of decades. Then, in the 1940s, an American couple named Sullivan acquired the ruins and turned them into guest cottages. Distinguished visitors to ex-Hacienda del Chorrillo included John F. and Jacqueline Kennedy in the 1950s..

I first mistook this for a chimney, but it actually appears to the the remains of a pillar. In the 1980s the ex-hacienda was purchased by the State of Guerrero for use as the headquarters of the Centro de Gastronomy Guerrerense a cooking school specializing in dishes from Guerrero. Other parts of the property became the Centro de Artes Plastico de Taxco. In 1990, the State offered the ex-hacienda to UNAM, which created a school to teach drawing, engraving, photography, sculpture, jewelry-making, and enamel on metal artwork.

View of the aqueduct, looking out. In 2011, UNAM added Visual Arts, Visual Communication, and Art and Design as degrees offered at the school. Mexico's dedication to preserving and utilizing its architectural heritage has always impressed me. In the US, all this would have long since been bulldozed to put up a Walmart or a glitzy hotel.

This completes Part 8 of my Taxco series. I hope you enjoyed it and, if so, you will leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email them to me directly. If you leave a question in the Comments section PLEASE leave your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

The spires of Parroquia Santa Prisca, silhouetted against mountains and sky. I took this long-lens shot from Hotel Monte Taxco's restaurant terrace. Carole and I decided to pay it a visit after touring ex-Hacienda del Chorrillo (see Part 8). I will finish my series on Taxco with the hotel's stunning vistas. Monte Taxco is a mesa that looms hundreds of feet over Taxco. The hotel sits on the edge of the mesa's dramatic cliffs. Ex-Hacienda del Chorrillo is located not far from the station of a tram called the Teleferico. We decided to use it to reach the mesa's top and were rewarded with an exhilarating ride. To locate Hotel Monte Taxco and the tram station on a Google map of Taxco, click here.

El Teleferico

The Teleferico, heading up. The four-passenger cars make the round trip at regular intervals. Since there were no other occupants besides Carole and myself, I had full access to all the windows for photos. TheTeleferico runs 8am - 7pm, Monday through Thursday, and 8am - 10pm on Friday and Saturday. Fares are $65 pesos ($3.15 USD) one-way and $95 pesos ($4.60 USD) round-trip for adults. Children younger than 11 pay $45 pesos one-way and $65 round-trip. In addition to the Teleferico, there are two other routes to the top. One is a cobblestone road called Calle Alfredo Checa Curi. The otheris a foot trail. We chose to take the tram up and then walk down the road because those routes offered the best views.

Carole turns to look back at the Teleferico station. The tram car gained altitude quickly and the view improved as each moment passed. The ride was quiet and smooth, enabling a rapid-fire series of photos in all directions. I only include a few here to give you a taste.

As we rose toward the summit, more and more of Taxco came into view. The tram station is the building with the bright red roof in the lower center. In this shot, you can get a sense of the steepness of the slope to which the city clings.

Speaking of clinging... On our way up, we passed these houses, cantilevered onto the sides of a nearly vertical cliff. As land suitable for construction becomes scarcer, and views become increasingly valuable, builders resort to daring solutions. Taxco has had one earthquake in the last 30 days and 8 in the last 365. I'm not sure I'd want to be in one of these structures when a big one hits.

Hotel Monte Taxco

Hotel Monte Taxco can be seen on top of the mesa in the upper left. This shot was taken from the balcony of the Angel Inn restaurant, looking north across central Taxco. The cliffs below Monte Taxco are blackened by mineral stains. They drop hundreds of vertical feet. In the foreground of the photo is ex-Convento de San Bernardino de Siena, seen in Part 8 of this series.

The hotel is built so that most rooms have balconies with views of the city. We considered staying at Hotel Monte Taxco, but decided on Hotel Los Arcos instead (see Part 1 of this series). Although the views from Monte Taxco are breathtaking, and the hotel itself is both lovely and reasonably priced, it is quite removed from the center of town. This would have necessitated regular use of our car on the crowded and narrow streets. We always like hotels that are near the main plaza of a town, where most of the interesting things can be found. Those without a car would need to use the Teleferico or a taxi to get down to the city below. At Los Arcos, we could keep our car garaged most of the time and just walk around.

An arbor walkway extends out from the center of the hotel toward the cliffs. This would be a nice spot to enjoy the shade on a warm day. There are great views through the arches on either side of the walkway.

A view to the west from the arbor walkway. The red tile roofs cover part of the hotel's guest rooms. Each of the rooms faces the city far below.

View to the east from the walkway. Here you can see the pool and, above it, some of the rooms. To the right of center, under the tile roof, is the terrace of the restaurant. Carole and I decided to stay for lunch and picked a table between the two columns on the far left of the tile roofed area.

Carole sits at the table at the end of the restaurant terrace. At that moment, we were their only customers. This allowed us to choose the table with the most panoramic view.

The view from our table. Our server was very attentive and obliging. At my request he pointed out several landmarks so that I could zero in on them with my telephoto lens. The food was excellent and reasonably priced, but it was hard to pay it any attention with this spectacle before us.

La Vista Grande

View toward the south showing central Taxco. Parroquia Santa Prisca is in the upper right quadrant of the photo. The city spills down the steep slopes like water flowing downhill. It then pools out into a depression surrounded by low hills. White walls with red tile roofs are the dominant color-scheme, a style that has persisted for centuries. Taxco's many attractive qualities have enabled the city to achieve the coveted status of Pueblo Magico(Magic Pueblo).

Santa Prisca is surrounded by closely packed homes, hotels, and other structures. In the background, range after range of mountains extend into the distance. Towns and cities can became Magic Pueblos if they possess natural beauty, cultural riches, or historical relevance. Taxco has all three of these qualities in abundance. Since the program was launched in 2001, over 100 Pueblos Magicos have been designated throughout Mexico.

As Taxco expanded over the centuries, one possible direction was uphill. The steep slopes of the surrounding hills are packed with structures, many of them dating to colonial times. Narrow cobble stone streets wind and twist throughout these neighborhoods.

Some neighborhoods extend right up to the base of awesome cliffs. These are among Taxco's most impressive natural features.

Some parts of the city extend down into the various arroyos that cut through the area. Building in arroyos is always risky. Heavy rains bring mudslides which roar through them with devastating effect. People who build, or buy properties, in arroyos always seem to think "it will happen sometime, somewhere, but never here."

A cobblestone road with hairpin turns connects Hotel Monte Taxco to the city below. After lunch, we decided to walk down this road, rather than take the tram. We were rewarded with more stunning vistas, as well as a look at some of the beautiful homes along the way.

View of Hotel Monte Taxco and hillside homes from the road below. The tall white structure in the middle of the hotel is an elevator. It is at the end of the arbor walkway that extends out from the hotel.

This completes Part 9 of my Taxco series. In the next couple of postings, we will visit the great, pre-hispanic ruin called Xochicalco, to the northeast of Taxco. I hope you have enjoyed the series as much as we did the actual visit. If you have questions or comments, please either leave them in the Comments section below or email them to me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Costa Rica Part 8: The Hanging Bridges of Mistico Arenal

Costa Rica Part 9: Crocs and critters along Rio Tarcoles

Costa Rica Part 10: The Pacific Coast

Costa Rica Part 11: Puntarenas Coast & Manuel Antonio National Park

Indigenous dancers & their traditional instruments

Hiking the Tapalpa Plateau

Valle de Bravo: lovely mountain pueblo on a pristine lake

Calixtlahuaca Part 1: Temple of the Wind God

Calixtlahuaca Part 2: The Tlaloc Temple and the Palace

Calixtlahuaca Part 3: Artifacts of a lost culture

Taxco Part 1: Silver City in the Mountains

Taxco Part 2: Plaza Borda

Taxco Part 3- Baile Folklorico's colorful dancers

Taxco Part 4: Parroquia Santa Prisca, the jewel in Taxco's crown

Mexico's Day of the Dead & its ancient pre-hispanic roots

Taxco Part 5: The stunning interior of Parroquia Santa Prisca

Taxco Part 6- Walking the old colonial streets

Taxco Part 7: Churches and chapels along Calle Hidalgo

Taxco Part 8: Ex-convento de San Bernardino de Siena and ex-Hacienda del Chorrillo

Taxco Part 9: Hotel Monte Taxco's dramatic vistas